Romans 13

Moreover, concerning subjection to authorities and powers, and prayer for them, the divine word gives us instructions, in order that "we may lead a quiet and peaceable life." [1 Timothy 2:2] And it teaches us to render all things to all, "honour to whom honour, fear to whom fear, tribute to whom tribute; to owe no man anything, but to love all." [Romans 13:7-8]

But Polycarp said, "To thee I have thought it right to offer an account [of my faith]; for we are taught to give all due honour (which entails no injury upon ourselves) to the powers and authorities which are ordained of God. But as for these, I do not deem them worthy of receiving any account from me."

As therefore the devil lied at the beginning, so did he also in the end, when he said, "All these are delivered unto me, and to whomsoever I will I give them." For it is not he who has appointed the kingdoms of this world, but God; for "the heart of the king is in the hand of God." And the Word also says by Solomon, "By me kings do reign, and princes administer justice. By me chiefs are raised up, and by me kings rule the earth." Paul the apostle also says upon this same subject: "Be ye subject to all the higher powers; for there is no power but of God: now those which are have been ordained of God." And again, in reference to them he says, "For he beareth not the sword in vain; for he is the minister of God, the avenger for wrath to him who does evil." Now, that he spake these words, not in regard to angelical powers, nor of invisible rulers-as some venture to expound the passage-but of those of actual human authorities, [he shows when] he says, "For this cause pay ye tribute also: for they are God's ministers, doing service for this very thing." This also the Lord confirmed, when He did not do what He was tempted to by the devil; but He gave directions that tribute should be paid to the tax-gatherers for Himself and Peter; because "they are the ministers of God, serving for this very thing."

For since man, by departing from God, reached such a pitch of fury as even to look upon his brother as his enemy, and engaged without fear in every kind of restless conduct, and murder, and avarice; God imposed upon mankind the fear of man, as they did not acknowledge the fear of God, in order that, being subjected to the authority of men, and kept under restraint by their laws, they might attain to some degree of justice, and exercise mutual forbearance through dread of the sword suspended full in their view, as the apostle says: "For he beareth not the sword in vain; for he is the minister of God, the avenger for wrath upon him who does evil." And for this reason too, magistrates themselves, having laws as a clothing of righteousness whenever they act in a just and legitimate manner, shall not be called in question for their conduct, nor be liable to punishment. But whatsoever they do to the subversion of justice, iniquitously, and impiously, and illegally, and tyrannically, in these things shall they also perish; for the just judgment of God comes equally upon all, and in no case is defective. Earthly rule, therefore, has been appointed by God for the benefit of nations, and not by the devil, who is never at rest at all, nay, who does not love to see even nations conducting themselves after a quiet manner, so that under the fear of human rule, men may not eat each other up like fishes; but that, by means of the establishment of laws, they may keep down an excess of wickedness among the nations. And considered from this point of view, those who exact tribute from us are "God's ministers, serving for this very purpose."

As therefore the devil lied at the beginning, so did he also in the end, when he said, "All these are delivered unto me, and to whomsoever I will I give them." For it is not he who has appointed the kingdoms of this world, but God; for "the heart of the king is in the hand of God." And the Word also says by Solomon, "By me kings do reign, and princes administer justice. By me chiefs are raised up, and by me kings rule the earth." Paul the apostle also says upon this same subject: "Be ye subject to all the higher powers; for there is no power but of God: now those which are have been ordained of God." And again, in reference to them he says, "For he beareth not the sword in vain; for he is the minister of God, the avenger for wrath to him who does evil." Now, that he spake these words, not in regard to angelical powers, nor of invisible rulers-as some venture to expound the passage-but of those of actual human authorities, [he shows when] he says, "For this cause pay ye tribute also: for they are God's ministers, doing service for this very thing." This also the Lord confirmed, when He did not do what He was tempted to by the devil; but He gave directions that tribute should be paid to the tax-gatherers for Himself and Peter; because "they are the ministers of God, serving for this very thing."

Now, that he spake these words, not in regard to angelical powers, nor of invisible rulers-as some venture to expound the passage-but of those of actual human authorities, [he shows when] he says, "For this cause pay ye tribute also: for they are God's ministers, doing service for this very thing." This also the Lord confirmed, when He did not do what He was tempted to by the devil; but He gave directions that tribute should be paid to the tax-gatherers for Himself and Peter; because "they are the ministers of God, serving for this very thing."

For since man, by departing from God, reached such a pitch of fury as even to look upon his brother as his enemy, and engaged without fear in every kind of restless conduct, and murder, and avarice; God imposed upon mankind the fear of man, as they did not acknowledge the fear of God, in order that, being subjected to the authority of men, and kept under restraint by their laws, they might attain to some degree of justice, and exercise mutual forbearance through dread of the sword suspended full in their view, as the apostle says: "For he beareth not the sword in vain; for he is the minister of God, the avenger for wrath upon him who does evil." And for this reason too, magistrates themselves, having laws as a clothing of righteousness whenever they act in a just and legitimate manner, shall not be called in question for their conduct, nor be liable to punishment. But whatsoever they do to the subversion of justice, iniquitously, and impiously, and illegally, and tyrannically, in these things shall they also perish; for the just judgment of God comes equally upon all, and in no case is defective. Earthly rule, therefore, has been appointed by God for the benefit of nations, and not by the devil, who is never at rest at all, nay, who does not love to see even nations conducting themselves after a quiet manner, so that under the fear of human rule, men may not eat each other up like fishes; but that, by means of the establishment of laws, they may keep down an excess of wickedness among the nations. And considered from this point of view, those who exact tribute from us are "God's ministers, serving for this very purpose."

But that this is the first and greatest commandment, and that the next [has respect to love] towards our neighbour, the Lord has taught, when He says that the entire law and the prophets hang upon these two commandments. Moreover, He did not Himself bring down [from heaven] any other commandment greater than this one, but renewed this very same one to His disciples, when He enjoined them to love God with all their heart, and others as themselves. But if He had descended from another Father, He never would have made use of the first and greatest commandment of the law; but He would undoubtedly have endeavoured by all means to bring down a greater one than this from the perfect Father, so as not to make use of that which had been given by the God of the law. And Paul in like manner declares, "Love is the fulfilling of the law:" and [he declares] that when all other things have been destroyed, there shall remain "faith, hope, and love; but the greatest of all is love;" and that apart from the love of God, neither knowledge avails anything, nor the understanding of mysteries, nor faith, nor prophecy, but that without love all are hollow and vain; moreover, that love makes man perfect; and that he who loves God is perfect, both in this world and in that which is to come. For we do never cease from loving God; but in proportion as we continue to contemplate Him, so much the more do we love Him.

For if rulers are not a terror to a good work, how shall God, who is by nature good, be a terror to him who sins not? "If thou doest evil, be afraid," says the apostle. Wherefore the apostle himself also in every case uses stringent language to the Churches, after the Lord's example; and conscious of his own boldness, and of the weakness of his hearers, he says to the Galatians: "Am I your enemy, because I tell you the truth?" Thus also people in health do not require a physician, do not require him as long as they are strong; but those who are ill need his skill. Thus also we who in our lives are ill of shameful lusts and reprehensible excesses, and other inflammatory effects of the passions, need the Saviour. And He administers not only mild, but also stringent medicines. The bitter roots of fear then arrest the eating sores of our sins. Wherefore also fear is salutary, if bitter.

Let the women wear a plain and becoming dress, but softer than what is suitable for a man, yet not quite immodest or entirely gone in luxury. And let the garments be suited to age, person, figure, nature, pursuits. For the divine apostle most beautifully counsels us "to put on Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the lusts of the flesh."

"For blessed are those that have seen the Lord," according to the apostle; "for it is high time to awake out of sleep. For now is our salvation nearer than when we believed. The night is far spent, the day is at hand. Let us therefore cast off the works of darkness, and put on the armour of light." By day and light he designates figuratively the Son, and by the armour of light metaphorically the promises.

"God," then, being good, "is love," it is said. Whose "love worketh no ill to his neighhour," neither injuring nor revenging ever, but, in a word, doing good to all according to the image of God. "Love is," then, "the fulfilling of the law; " like as Christ, that is the presence of the Lord who loves us; and our loving teaching of, and discipline according to Christ. By love, then, the commands not to commit adultery, and not to covet one's neighbour's wife, are fulfilled, [these sins being] formerly prohibited by fear.

We shall, however, treat of prayer in due course by and by. But we ought to have works that cry aloud, as becoming "those who walk in the day." "Let thy works shine," and behold a man and his works before his face. "For behold God and His works." For the gnostic must, as far as is possible, imitate God.

But the cavillers did not know even this, as the apostle says, "that he who loveth his brother worketh not evil;" for this, "Thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not commit adultery, thou shalt not steal; and if there be any other commandment, it is comprehended in the word, Thou shall love thy neighbour as thyself." So also is it said, "Thou shall love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." And "if he that loveth his neighbour worketh no evil," and if "every commandment is comprehended in this, the loving our neighbour," the commandments, by menacing with fear, work love, not hatred. Wherefore the law is productive of the emotion of fear. "So that the law is holy," and in truth "spiritual," according to the apostle.

Such shall he be "who cleaves to that which is good," according to the apostle, "who hates evil, having love unfeigned; for he that loveth another fulfilleth the law." If, then, this God, to whom we bear witness, be as He is, the God of hope, we acknowledge our hope, speeding on to hope, "saturated with goodness, filled with all knowledge."

For if people occupy their time with pipes, and psalteries, and choirs, and dances, and Egyptian clapping of hands, and such disorderly frivolities, they become quite immodest and intractable, beat on cymbals and drums, and make a noise on instruments of delusion; for plainly such a banquet, as seems to me, is a theatre of drunkenness. For the apostle decrees that, "putting off the works of darkness, we should put on the armour of light, walking honestly as in the day, not spending our time in rioting and drunkenness, in chambering and wantonness." Let the pipe be resigned to the shepherds, and the flute to the superstitious who are engrossed in idolatry. For, in truth, such instruments are to be banished from the temperate banquet, being more suitable to beasts than men, and the more irrational portion of mankind.

"For blessed are those that have seen the Lord," according to the apostle; "for it is high time to awake out of sleep. For now is our salvation nearer than when we believed. The night is far spent, the day is at hand. Let us therefore cast off the works of darkness, and put on the armour of light." By day and light he designates figuratively the Son, and by the armour of light metaphorically the promises.

Who would not prefer the justice of the world, which, as the apostle himself testifies, "beareth not the sword in vain," and which is an institute of religion when it severely avenges in defence of human life? When we contemplate, too, the penalties awarded to other crimes-gibbets, and holocausts, and sacks, and harpoons, and precipices-who would not think it better to receive his sentence in the courts of Pythagoras and Empedocles? For even the wretches whom they will send into the bodies of asses and mules to be punished by drudgery and slavery, how will they congratulate themselves on the mild labour of the mill and the water-wheel, when they recollect the mines, and the convict-gangs, and the public works, and even the prisons and black-holes, terrible in their idle, do-nothing routine? Then, again, in the case of those who, after a course of integrity, have surrendered their life to the Judge, I likewise look for rewards, but I rather discover punishments.

On the ground of continence the priests likewise of the famous Egyptian bull will judge the "infirmity" of Christians. Blush, O flesh, who hast "put on" Christ! Suffice it thee once for all to marry, whereto "from the beginning" thou wast created, whereto by "the end" thou art being recalled! Return at least to the former Adam, if to the last thou canst not! Once for all did he taste of the tree; once for all felt concupiscence; once for all veiled his shame; once for all blushed in the presence of God; once for all concealed his guilty hue; once for all was exiled from the paradise of holiness; once for all thenceforward married.

Therefore, as to what relates to the honours due to kings or emperors, we have a prescript sufficient, that it behoves us to be in all obedience, according to the apostle's precept, "subject to magistrates, and princes, and powers; " but within the limits of discipline, so long as we keep ourselves separate from idolatry.

No doubt the apostle admonishes the Romans to be subject to all power, because there is no power but of God, and because (the ruler) does not carry the sword without reason, and is the servant of God, nay also, says he, a revenger to execute wrath upon him that doeth evil.

Then he goes on also to show how he wishes you to be subject to the powers, bidding you pay "tribute to whom tribute is due, custom to whom custom," that is, the things which are Caesar's to Caesar, and the things which are God's to God; but man is the property of God alone.

Whether, moreover, the apostle had any acquaintance with xerophagies-(the apostle) who had repeatedly practised greater rigours, "hunger, and thirst, and fists many," who had forbidden "drunkennesses and revellings" -we have a sufficient evidence even from the case of his disciple Timotheus; whom when he admonishes, "for the sake of his stomach and constant weaknesses," to use "a little wine," from which he was abstaining not from rule, but from devotion-else the custom would rather have been beneficial to his stomach-by this very fact he has advised abstinence from wine as "worthy of God," which, on a ground of necessity, he has dissuaded.

Appendages, as we all know, of appetite are lasciviousness and voluptuousness. Which alliance the apostle withal was aware of; and hence, after premising, "Not in drunkenness and revels," he adjoined, "nor in couches and lusts."

For in this law given to Adam we recognise in embryo all the precepts which afterwards sprouted forth when given through Moses; that is, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God from thy whole heart and out of thy whole soul; Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself; Thou shalt not kill; Thou shall not commit adultery; Thou shalt not steal; False witness thou shall not utter; Honour thy father and mother; and, That which is another's, shall thou not covet.

Very properly, then, did he sum up the entire teaching of the Creator in this precept of His: "Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." Now, if this is the recapitulation of the law from the very law itself, I am at a loss to know who is the God of the law.

Are we to paint ourselves out that our neighbours may perish? Where, then, is (the command), "Thou shall love thy neighbour as thyself? " "Care not merely about your own (things), but (about your) neighbour's? " No enunciation of the Holy Spirit ought to be (confined) to the subject immediately in hand merely, and not applied and carried out with a view to every occasion to which its application is useful.

For how much more easily does he who delineates a statue overlay a sideboard! How much sooner does he who carves a Mars out of a lime-tree, fasten together a chest! No art but is either mother or kinswoman of some neighbour art: nothing is independent of its neighbour.

Nay, but this whole world is the one house of all; in which world it is more the heathen, who is found in darkness, whom the grace of God enlightens, than the Christian, who is already in God's light. Finally, it is one "straying" which is ascribed to the ewe and the drachma: (and this is an evidence in my favour); for if the parables had been composed with a view to a Christian sinner, after the loss of his faith, a second loss and restoration of them would have been noted.

So far as concerns the honors due to king or emperor, we have a clear ruling to be subject in all obedience, according to the apostle's command, to magistrates and princes and those in authority, but within the limits of Christian discipline, i.e., so long as we keep ourselves free of idolatry.

For his other actings, however, he is rather to be borne with by his flock and those put under him, than accused or made the subject of public detraction; because when any offence is committed in these matters by those put under them, His ordinance is withstood who set them before him, as the apostle says, "Whosoever resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God."

For there was no laying of accusations against each other among them, except what was friendly; neither ought there ever to be such among their followers or among believers: for the Lord says, "Do not that to another which thou wouldst not have done to thyself." And He says also, "Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself;" and, "Love worketh no ill to his neighbour."

And therefore he says: Therefore he who resists the power resists the ordinance of God; and those who resist acquire damnation for themselves. He is not here speaking of those powers which bring persecutions upon the faith; for in that case it must be said: We ought to obey God rather than men. Rather he is speaking of those ordinary powers which are not a terror to the good work, but to the evil: and whoever resists these certainly procures damnation for himself according to the quality of his deeds.

But as for what he said, Let us put on the armor of light, he now explains how this ought to come about. But put on, he says, the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh in its concupiscences. We have frequently said that Christ is wisdom, and righteousness, and sanctification, and truth, and all the virtues together: and whoever has taken these up is said to have put on Christ. For if Christ is all these things, then necessarily he who has these has Christ also. For he who has these makes no provision for the flesh in its concupiscences. The Apostle employs his customary moderation, in that he does not deny that provision for the flesh is to be made in every respect. For it is certain that in things necessary it must be made; but in delicacies and luxury and every concupiscence it must be utterly excluded.

The Lord Jesus Christ himself … is said to be the clothing of the saints.

Let us see, then, what the Apostle now adds in what follows: Let every soul be subject to the higher powers. It seems to me that in this he has very commendably named the soul, which he commands to be subject to the powers. For he would never have said, let every spirit be subject to the power, but, let every soul. Concerning this distinction we have already often said that sometimes a person is named from the soul, sometimes from the flesh, sometimes from the spirit. But when he is to be named from the better part, as one who ought to be understood as spiritual, he is called spirit; when from the lower, soul; but when he is named from the worse, he is called flesh — and we have often brought forward testimonies about these things from the Scriptures. Now, therefore, since the Apostle is laying down precepts for believers, he wishes us to preserve, so far as it lies in us, the quiet and peace of the present life. And if indeed we are such as are joined to the Lord and are one spirit with Him, we are said to be subject to the Lord. But if we are not yet such, but there is still in us the common soul which has something of this world, which is bound to it by some business, for this one the Apostle lays down precepts, and says that it should be subject to the powers of the world: because the Lord also said that those who have in themselves the superscription of Caesar should render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's. Peter and John had nothing which they might render to Caesar; for Peter says: Gold and silver I do not have. He who does not have this has neither anything to render to Caesar, nor anything on account of which he should be subject to the higher powers. But he who has either money, or possessions, or any business in the world, let him hear: Let every soul be subject to the higher powers.

For there is no power, he says, except from God. Perhaps someone will say: What then? Is even that power which persecutes the servants of God, attacks the faith, and overturns religion, from God? To this we shall reply briefly. There is no one who does not know that sight has been given to us by God, and hearing, and understanding. Since, therefore, we have these from God, yet it is in our own power whether we use sight for good things or for evil; and similarly hearing, and the movement of our hands, and the thought of our mind: and in this consists the just judgment of God, that we misuse for impious and iniquitous services those things which He gave for good uses. So, then, every power also has been given by God for the punishment of the evil, but for the praise of the good, as the same Apostle says in what follows. And the judgment of God will be just toward those who regulate the power they have received according to their own impieties, and not according to the divine laws.

And this, knowing the time, that it is now the hour to rise from sleep. For now our salvation is nearer than when we believed. The night has gone before, but the day has drawn near. Let us therefore cast off the works of darkness, and let us put on the armor of light; let us walk honorably, as in the day. When, after those discussions which the Apostle pursued concerning either the Gentiles or the Jews, he had also introduced the moral topic, by which he might more and more urge his hearers toward conversion, he now introduces as well the pressing consideration of time, which in all matters is supreme. For no one is so drowsy and sluggish that the brightness of the oncoming day does not rouse him, and whose sight the sun, poured into his eyes, does not open. There is, then, a certain sleep of the soul as well. For if it has, as we have often already said, its own proper eyes, and its own ears, and hands and feet — each of which is to be reckoned not so much as bodily members belonging to it, as powers by which it is moved and stirred toward each several thing — then without doubt sleep also befalls it in respect of its eyes. For if it does not do at the opportune time the things that are God's, but grows torpid with idleness, it will deservedly be said to sleep. For this reason, therefore, Paul, the herald of Christ, going about a world set in the sleep of idleness, announces that the light is now at hand, and that it is time to rise from sleep; and that the night — that is, that time in which ignorance held dominion over men — has gone before, and that, with the coming of the Sun of righteousness drawing near and the darkness thinning out, the day of knowledge is now imminent; and therefore he cries out that one must awake, lest through sloth anyone suffer night in the daylight; and that the works of darkness must be cast off, and the armor of light put on. The works of darkness are those acts which are alien from God; the armor of light, however, is the taking up of the virtues. And just as we have said that it is disgraceful to sleep when day is already pressing upon us, much more disgraceful is it to carry out the works of darkness in the time of day and light. But it must be known that the coming of this light and day is to be understood in a twofold manner: both as general for all, and as particular for each individual. The light and day will be present generally for all when the time of the age to come has arrived: in comparison with which the span of this present world is called darkness. That time draws near as the days daily slip away, and the spans which are increased for the past are without doubt diminished for the future; and therefore, he says, our salvation is now nearer than when we believed, and daily it becomes nearer — just as the Lord also, when he was distinguishing the signs of the consummation of the age, said: But when you see all these things, lift up your heads, for your redemption draws near. But there also comes about a coming of this day for individuals. For if Christ is in our heart, he makes day for us also: if the reasoning of knowledge puts our ignorances to flight, and, turning aside from unworthy acts, we pursue whatever is devout and honorable, we are set in the light, and, as it were, we walk honorably in the day.

Finally, he sets forth in what follows how great is the power of charity. For he who loves his neighbor, he says, has fulfilled the law. For: You shall not commit adultery, you shall not kill, you shall not steal, you shall not bear false witness, you shall not covet; and if there is any other commandment, it is summed up again in this word: You shall love your neighbor as yourself. And at the last, gathering up briefly the reason for so great a good, he says: The love of one's neighbor works no evil; therefore love is the fullness of the law. Above he had said that he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law; and because it seemed difficult how anyone could fulfill the whole law in a single utterance, he renders the fullest account, saying: The love of one's neighbor works no evil, and therefore love is the fullness of the law. For set love alongside each single commandment of the law, and see how easily they are all fulfilled. Can he who loves his neighbor possibly kill him? It is certain that no one kills the person he loves. Love, then, is that by which the commandment is fulfilled which enjoins: You shall not kill. And again, does he who loves his neighbor commit adultery with his wife? Assuredly never. If, therefore, you love your neighbor, neither will you commit adultery. Likewise too, he who loves his neighbor does not steal what belongs to him; and he who loves his neighbor does not speak false witness against him. Likewise the remaining commandments of the law also, if there be love toward one's neighbor, are kept without any labor. Yet I think that in this too the Apostle wished us to learn something by a shorter road. For if you inquire more diligently who our neighbor is, you will learn in the Gospel that he is our neighbor who came, and, when we lay wounded by robbers and stripped bare by demons, set us upon the beast of his own body, and carried us to the inn of the Church, and granted to the innkeeper (whether to Paul himself, or to everyone who presides over the Church) the two denarii of the New and Old Testament for the expenses of our care and attendance. If, then, we love this neighbor, we fulfill the whole law and all the commandments in love of him. For Christ is the end of the law unto righteousness for everyone who believes; nor can it come about by any means that one who loves Christ with his whole heart and with all his inward parts should do anything that does not please Christ. For he who loves him not only does not kill him, which the law forbids, but does not even grow angry with his brother. He who so delights in the one he loves not only does not commit adultery, but does not even look upon a woman to lust after her; but says rather to him: My soul covets and faints for the living God. He who loves Christ, how should he think about theft, who even leaves behind all his own possessions, whatever he has, in order to follow Christ? He who loves Christ, when does he speak false witness, since he knows that the very one whom he loves was betrayed by false witness? And necessarily he who loves Christ also loves his neighbor. For by this sign alone is one marked out as a disciple of Christ, if he has charity toward his neighbors. For it is certain that he who does not love his neighbor does not know Christ.

What the works of darkness are which must be cast off, he next enumerates, saying: Not in revelings and drunkenness; not in chamberings and impurities; not in strife and envy. These are the works of darkness, which are also called the works of the flesh, in those who have made over their flesh to wantonness and impurity, not to holiness nor to the Lord. For revelings — that is, disgraceful and luxurious banquets, whose necessary companion is the most shameful drunkenness — what else will follow upon them, save chamberings and impurities? From foul couchings they are named "chamberings," things which seem to befit not so much rational human beings as wild beasts and brutes. Not in strife and envy. Those things which he named above are vices of the flesh; these now are also of the soul — although all alike are called works of the flesh and works of darkness, because in truth strife and envy are in the souls of those who live according to the flesh and who walk in darkness. But he who is in the light, and walks honorably as in the day, does nothing through strife, nothing through vainglory. In this way, then, does one cast off (as he said above) the works of darkness.

Therefore it is necessary to be subject, not only because of wrath, but also because of conscience. For on this account you also pay tributes. For they are God's ministers, attending upon this very thing. By these words Paul indeed orders the Church of God, that, doing nothing adverse to the princes and powers of this world, it may through quiet and tranquillity of life carry out the work of righteousness and piety. For if we were to suppose, for example, that those believing in Christ were not subject to the powers of this world, did not render tributes, nor pay customs, showed fear to none, honor to none, would they not by these things deservedly turn the arms of rulers and princes against themselves, and make their persecutors excusable, but themselves blameworthy? For they would then seem to be assailed not for the cause of faith, but of insolence; and there would be for them indeed a worthy cause of death, but an unworthy merit of death. Foreseeing these things, then, through his immense wisdom, Paul says: Render to all what is due: to whom tribute, tribute; to whom custom, custom; to whom fear, fear; to whom honor, honor. Owe no one anything, save that you love one another. I think, however, that these things too Paul does not utter apart from the customary mysteries of his discourses. For indeed we have already taught in the foregoing that every creature, and all spirits, whether good and upright, or even of a depraved and evil purpose, minister to God, and that each one furnishes that ministry for which he has shown himself fit. For the Apostle pronounced concerning all of them together when he said: Are they not all ministering spirits, sent forth for ministry on account of those who receive the inheritance of salvation? All spirits, therefore, minister to the life of men; each one, however, as we have said, according to his own dignity and desert: for those also are called ministers by whose ministry the things that pertain to the world are accomplished. Whence the Apostle also, who had said of himself, the world is crucified to me, and I to the world, says this as well: But we have not received the spirit of this world, but the Spirit which is from God. But he who is still of the world, and savors the things that are of the world, and seeks the things that are of the flesh, is necessarily subject to the ministers of the world; subject, moreover, because of wrath, which he has treasured up for himself from his sins. And on this account it seems to me that he says: Therefore it is necessary to be subject, not only because of wrath, but also because of conscience; since he who is made subject has in himself that for which he is accused by conscience. To these, therefore, we also pay certain tributes, while we still live according to the flesh and think the things that are of the flesh. For if we cultivate the Lord's vineyard, and exercise within ourselves the true vine, which is Christ, from that vineyard we shall not pay tributes to the ministers of the world, but shall render the fruits in their season to the Lord Himself: according to what the Savior Himself says in the Gospels, that He will take away the vineyard from the evil husbandmen, and will give it to other husbandmen who will render Him the fruits in their season. But this very thing also which he says: Render to all what is due: to whom tribute, tribute; to whom custom, custom — seems to me to be distinguished from what is added in what follows, to whom fear, fear; to whom honor, honor: and that tributes and customs indeed pertain to those ministers of whom we spoke above. For they exact from us the tributes of our land, and the customs of our trading. And why do I speak of ourselves? Even our Lord Jesus Christ, when He was placed in the flesh, had tribute exacted of Him: which He says that He pays for this reason, not because He is a debtor, but lest He should give them offense. But if He who had nothing of Caesar's in Himself, and in whom the prince of this world, when he came, found nothing of his own, although He was free, nevertheless paid tribute (for He came even into death, that He might be free also among the dead) — how much more is it necessary for us to pay out these tributes of the flesh, and, if indeed we trade in the pearls of the kingdom of heaven, to pay the customs of our trading to the spirits who exact them from us through diverse temptations? But fear and honor we ought rather to refer to Him who says through the prophet: Do you not call me both Lord and Father? And if I am Lord, where is my fear? and if I am Father, where is my honor? As for the latter things which he added, that is, Owe no one anything, it is certain that these are to be referred to the ministers, to whom a man becomes a debtor when he has sinned. For we have shown in many places and frequently that sin is a debt. Paul wishes, therefore, that every debt of sin be paid, and that the debt of sin remain with us not at all, but that the debt of charity abide and never cease from us: for it is expedient for us both to pay this daily, and always to owe it.

Finally, he sets forth in what follows how great is the power of charity. For he who loves his neighbor, he says, has fulfilled the law. For: You shall not commit adultery, you shall not kill, you shall not steal, you shall not bear false witness, you shall not covet; and if there is any other commandment, it is summed up again in this word: You shall love your neighbor as yourself. And at the last, gathering up briefly the reason for so great a good, he says: The love of one's neighbor works no evil; therefore love is the fullness of the law. Above he had said that he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law; and because it seemed difficult how anyone could fulfill the whole law in a single utterance, he renders the fullest account, saying: The love of one's neighbor works no evil, and therefore love is the fullness of the law. For set love alongside each single commandment of the law, and see how easily they are all fulfilled. Can he who loves his neighbor possibly kill him? It is certain that no one kills the person he loves. Love, then, is that by which the commandment is fulfilled which enjoins: You shall not kill. And again, does he who loves his neighbor commit adultery with his wife? Assuredly never. If, therefore, you love your neighbor, neither will you commit adultery. Likewise too, he who loves his neighbor does not steal what belongs to him; and he who loves his neighbor does not speak false witness against him. Likewise the remaining commandments of the law also, if there be love toward one's neighbor, are kept without any labor. Yet I think that in this too the Apostle wished us to learn something by a shorter road. For if you inquire more diligently who our neighbor is, you will learn in the Gospel that he is our neighbor who came, and, when we lay wounded by robbers and stripped bare by demons, set us upon the beast of his own body, and carried us to the inn of the Church, and granted to the innkeeper (whether to Paul himself, or to everyone who presides over the Church) the two denarii of the New and Old Testament for the expenses of our care and attendance. If, then, we love this neighbor, we fulfill the whole law and all the commandments in love of him. For Christ is the end of the law unto righteousness for everyone who believes; nor can it come about by any means that one who loves Christ with his whole heart and with all his inward parts should do anything that does not please Christ. For he who loves him not only does not kill him, which the law forbids, but does not even grow angry with his brother. He who so delights in the one he loves not only does not commit adultery, but does not even look upon a woman to lust after her; but says rather to him: My soul covets and faints for the living God. He who loves Christ, how should he think about theft, who even leaves behind all his own possessions, whatever he has, in order to follow Christ? He who loves Christ, when does he speak false witness, since he knows that the very one whom he loves was betrayed by false witness? And necessarily he who loves Christ also loves his neighbor. For by this sign alone is one marked out as a disciple of Christ, if he has charity toward his neighbors. For it is certain that he who does not love his neighbor does not know Christ.

But do you wish, he says, not to fear the power? Do what is good, and you will have praise from it; for it is God's minister to you for good. But if you do what is evil, be afraid: for not without cause does it bear the sword; for it is God's minister, an avenger in wrath upon him who does what is evil. Paul moves me in these words, in that he calls the worldly power and the judge of this world God's minister; and this he repeats not once, but a second and a third time. I should therefore like to inquire how the judge of the world is God's minister. We find it written in the Acts of the Apostles that the apostles, coming together into one place, established decrees which we who from the Gentiles have believed in Christ ought to observe, in which these things are contained: The apostles and elders to the brethren who are at Antioch, and Syria, and Cilicia, to all who have believed from among the Gentiles, greeting. Forasmuch as we have heard that certain went out from us and troubled you, to whom we gave no such commandment. And after a little it is added: It seemed good, therefore, to the Holy Spirit and to us to lay upon you no further burden of weight, beyond those things which are necessary, that you abstain from things sacrificed to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication; from which if you keep yourselves you will do well. Farewell. In these precepts, then, in which he says that no further burden is to be imposed upon those who believe from among the Gentiles, save that they abstain from things sacrificed to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication, neither is murder forbidden, nor adultery, nor theft, nor the lying of males with males, nor the other crimes which are punished by divine and human laws. But if he says that only those things which he mentioned above are to be observed by Christians, he will seem to have granted them license as regards the rest. But consider the ordering of the Holy Spirit: since indeed the other crimes are avenged by the laws of the world, and it seemed superfluous that those things should now be forbidden by divine law which are sufficiently chastised by human law, he decrees only those things concerning which human law had said nothing and which seemed to pertain to religion. From which it appears that the judge of the world fulfills the greatest part of God's law. For all the crimes which God wills to be avenged, He willed to be avenged not through the prelates and rulers of the Churches, but through the judge of the world; and Paul, knowing this, rightly names him God's minister and an avenger upon him who does what is evil. But what he says concerning the power, Do what is good, and you will have praise from it, seems to me to require a deeper inquiry. For it is not the custom of the powers of this world to praise those who have not been criminals. For they indeed punish those who sin, but they have no custom of praising those who do not sin. But let us see whether perhaps Paul, even when he seems to be teaching moral matters, does not fail always to insert something also about the mysteries. For indeed, knowing that all who have sinned in the law shall be judged by the law — and that in the judgment that law will without doubt convict each one according to how he lived (and we have shown that the Holy Spirit in many things has given place to human law) — it is therefore certain that in the day of judgment he too will have praise with God even from these laws, who has committed nothing against the established laws, when it will be said to him by the Lord: Well done, good and faithful servant, you have been faithful over a few things, I will set you over many things. Yet it must be known that the law is not laid down for the just, but for the unjust and the insubordinate, for the wicked, for murderers, for the defiled, for perjurers, and for the rest who are of this sort. For these are they who fear the law. But he who does good, that is, who does what is good not from fear of the law but from love of the good, that man now lives not under the law of the letter, but under the law of the spirit.

And this, knowing the time, that it is now the hour to rise from sleep. For now our salvation is nearer than when we believed. The night has gone before, but the day has drawn near. Let us therefore cast off the works of darkness, and let us put on the armor of light; let us walk honorably, as in the day. When, after those discussions which the Apostle pursued concerning either the Gentiles or the Jews, he had also introduced the moral topic, by which he might more and more urge his hearers toward conversion, he now introduces as well the pressing consideration of time, which in all matters is supreme. For no one is so drowsy and sluggish that the brightness of the oncoming day does not rouse him, and whose sight the sun, poured into his eyes, does not open. There is, then, a certain sleep of the soul as well. For if it has, as we have often already said, its own proper eyes, and its own ears, and hands and feet — each of which is to be reckoned not so much as bodily members belonging to it, as powers by which it is moved and stirred toward each several thing — then without doubt sleep also befalls it in respect of its eyes. For if it does not do at the opportune time the things that are God's, but grows torpid with idleness, it will deservedly be said to sleep. For this reason, therefore, Paul, the herald of Christ, going about a world set in the sleep of idleness, announces that the light is now at hand, and that it is time to rise from sleep; and that the night — that is, that time in which ignorance held dominion over men — has gone before, and that, with the coming of the Sun of righteousness drawing near and the darkness thinning out, the day of knowledge is now imminent; and therefore he cries out that one must awake, lest through sloth anyone suffer night in the daylight; and that the works of darkness must be cast off, and the armor of light put on. The works of darkness are those acts which are alien from God; the armor of light, however, is the taking up of the virtues. And just as we have said that it is disgraceful to sleep when day is already pressing upon us, much more disgraceful is it to carry out the works of darkness in the time of day and light. But it must be known that the coming of this light and day is to be understood in a twofold manner: both as general for all, and as particular for each individual. The light and day will be present generally for all when the time of the age to come has arrived: in comparison with which the span of this present world is called darkness. That time draws near as the days daily slip away, and the spans which are increased for the past are without doubt diminished for the future; and therefore, he says, our salvation is now nearer than when we believed, and daily it becomes nearer — just as the Lord also, when he was distinguishing the signs of the consummation of the age, said: But when you see all these things, lift up your heads, for your redemption draws near. But there also comes about a coming of this day for individuals. For if Christ is in our heart, he makes day for us also: if the reasoning of knowledge puts our ignorances to flight, and, turning aside from unworthy acts, we pursue whatever is devout and honorable, we are set in the light, and, as it were, we walk honorably in the day.

That the servant of God ought to be innocent, lest he fall into secular punishment. In the Epistle of Paul to the Romans: "Wilt thou not be afraid of the power? Do that which is good, and thou shall have praise of it."

And therefore, beloved brethren, the Lord, taking thought for this risk, that none should fall into the snare of death through jealousy of his brother, when His disciples asked Him which among them should be the greatest, said, "Who soever shall be least among you all, the same shall be great." He cut off all envy by His reply. He plucked out and tore away every cause anti matter of gnawing envy. A disciple of Christ must not be jealous, must not be envious. With us there can be no contest for exaltation; from humility we grow to the highest attainments; we have learnt in what way we may be pleasing. And finally, the Apostle Paul, instructing and warning, that we who, illuminated by the light of Christ, have escaped from the darkness of the conversation of night, should walk in the deeds and works of light, writes and says, "The night has passed over, and the day is approaching: let us therefore cast away the works of darkness, and let us put upon us the armour of light. Let us walk honestly, as in the day; not in rioting and drunkenness, not in lusts and wantonness, not in strifes and jealousy." If the darkness has departed from your breast, if the night is scattered therefrom, if the gloom is chased away, if the brightness of day has illuminated your senses, if you have begun to be a man of light, do those things which are Christ's, because Christ is the Light and the Day.

That humility and quietness are to be maintained in all things. In Isaiah: "Thus saith the Lord God, The heaven is my throne, and the earth is the stool of my feet. What seat will ye build for me, or what is the place for my rest? For all those things hath my hand made, and all those things are mine. And upon whom else will I look, except upon the lowly and quiet man, and him that trembleth at my words? " On this same thing in the Gospel according to Matthew: "Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth." Of this same thing, too, according to Luke: "He that shall be least among you all, the same shall be great." Also in the same lace: "Whosoever exalteth himself shall be made low, and whosoever abaseth himself shall be exalted." Of this same thing to the Romans: "Be not high-minded, but fear; for if God spared not the natural branches, (take heed) lest He also spare not thee." Of this same thing in the thirty-third Psalm: And He shall save the lowly in spirit." Also to the Romans: "Render to all what is due: tribute to whom tribute is due, custom to whom custom, fear to whom fear, honour to whom honour; owe no man anything, except to love another." Also in the Gospel according to Matthew: "They love the first place of reclining at feasts, and the chief seat in the synagogues, and salutations in the market, and to be called of men Rabbi. But call not ye Rabbi, for One is your Master." Also in the Gospel according to John: "The servant is not greater than his lord, nor the apostle greater than He that sent himself. If ye know these things, blessed shall ye be if ye shall do them." Also in the eighty-first Psalm: "Do justice to the poor and lowly."

It is right to submit to higher authority whenever a command of God is not violated thereby.

True and perfect obedience of subjects to their superior is shown not only by their refraining from every untoward action in accordance with his advice but also by their not doing even what is approved without his consent.

The ruler is saved not through much power but through divine grace.

Be subject to all royal power and dominion in things which are pleasing to God, as to the ministers of God, and the punishers of the ungodly. Render all the fear that is due to them, all offerings, all customs, all honour, gifts, and taxes. For this is God's command, that you owe nothing to any one but the pledge of love, which God has commanded by Christ.

For this is God's command, that l you owe nothing to any one but the pledge of love, which God has commanded by Christ.

"Judas the Galilean revolted in the days of the census," says Gamaliel in the Acts of the Apostles, and "drew away some of the people after him," refusing to obey the order of the Romans and register their goods, for which reason Quirinius had been sent to Syria.… But as Judas's decision was the cause of domestic murders and of a rebellion against the authorities which did much harm to the people, it seems to me that here the apostle is condemning any attempt to imitate him based on the illusion that it is a godly thing to disobey rulers. He has a good deal to say about this, condemning it as a mistaken way of thinking.

Since God has ordained that there will be a future judgment and he does not want anyone to perish, he has ordained rulers in this world who, by causing people to be afraid of them, act as tutors to mankind, teaching them what to do in order to avoid future punishment.

Rulers here are kings who are created in order to correct behavior and prevent bad things from happening. They have the image of God, because everyone else is under one head.

Paul writes this against those who believe that because of their own power they cannot be apprehended and so therefore they can play fast and loose with the law. He shows them that this is the law of God and that those who by some subterfuge escape it for a time will not escape God's judgment.

Paul wants everything the law forbids not to be desired, or if it is desired, to be overcome.… To put on Christ means to cut oneself off from every sin and wickedness, so that at the wedding banquet one will not be found without a new garment and be shamefully thrown out into the darkness.

As Paul has already ordered that the law of heavenly righteousness be followed, he now commends earthly law as well, so as not to appear to be slighting it. For if the earthly law is not kept, the heavenly law will not be kept either. The earthly law is a kind of tutor, who helps little children along so that they can tackle a stronger degree of righteousness. For mercy cannot be imputed to anyone who does not seek righteousness.Therefore, in order to back up the authority and fear of the natural law, Paul bears witness to the fact that God is the author of both and that the ministers of the earthly law have God's permission to act, so that no one should despise it as a merely human construction. In effect, Paul sees the divine law as being delegated to human authorities.

One must be subject … because of the coming judgment, for whoever escapes now will be punished then, his own conscience accusing him.

Paul says that the time has come when we must hasten to obtain our reward. This is what it means to wake up from sleep—to do good as if it were day, i.e., openly.… It is clear that if we live well after baptism and strive for love we are not far from the reward of the promised resurrection. For the good life of a Christian is the sign of future salvation. For when a person is baptized he is forgiven but not rewarded. Later, as he walks in newness of life, he is near to eternal life.

Paul is using the words of the law to arrive at the meaning of the gospel. Therefore when he records the fulfilling of the law he ties it to the gospel, demonstrating that both have a single author. Yet in the time of Christ it was necessary to add something, viz., that we should love our enemies as well as our neighbors.… What does it mean to love an enemy, except to choose not to hate him any longer and to seek to do him no harm?… For the Lord himself on the cross prayed for his enemies in order to demonstrate what the fullness of righteousness, which he had taught, actually was.

It is true that people do not sin in public, so let us behave as if we were constantly in the public eye. For there is nothing more public than the truth.…Crimes are hatched in large supplies of wine, and many kinds of lust are stirred up. Therefore banquets of this kind are to be avoided.… Debauchery is another result of this sort of thing. Paul was right to warn them against quarreling and jealousy, because both of these things lead to enmity.

Moses wrote all this in order to reform the natural law.… Although there may be other laws which Paul has not mentioned, love is the fulfillment of them all. For if the human race had loved from the beginning, there would never have been any wickedness on earth. For the result of unrighteousness is discord.

Paul wants us to have peace with everyone and love the brethren. Then we shall not owe anybody anything.He who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law of Moses. The commandment of the new law is that we should love our enemies also.

"Night" means the old man, who is renewed through baptism. Paul says that he has passed away like the night and that the day is near, i.e., the sun of righteousness, by whose light the truth appears to us so that we may know what to do. For before we were in the dark, being ignorant of Christ. But when we learned of him the light rose on us and we passed from the false to the true.The "darkness" refers to carnal sins, which are done by worldly enticements.… But to "put on the armor of light" is to do good deeds.

Giving honor to the powers that be in this world may have the effect that, if they see the humility of Christ's servants, they may praise rather than curse the gospel's teaching.

Those who disobey the king have committed a crime and will face judgment.

This means that we should imitate Christ in what we do and show him to others in the way we behave.

The book of Proverbs teaches us that kings do not come to rule apart from the dispensation and will of God: "Through me kings reign and princes decree justice."

When we realized what the advantages of good works are, the message of salvation became easier to understand than it was when we first believed. For when we believed in Christ we did not immediately acquire an exact understanding of what we should be doing, nor was it clear to us what we should stop doing and what we should continue doing.

The "day" is the time of this life which remains to us, in which we can do good works. The "night" is the future, in which it will no longer be possible to work. Then we shall lie in the darkness, having lost the chance to do good works.

Those, therefore, who imitate Christ, imitate Him earnestly. For those who have "put on Christ" [Romans 13:14] in truth, express His likeness in their thoughts, and in their whole life, and in all their behaviour: in word, and in deeds, and in patience, and in fortitude, and in knowledge, and in chastity, and in long-suffering, and in a pure heart, and in faith, and in hope, and in full and perfect love towards God. No virgin, therefore, unless they be in everything as Christ, and as those "who are Christs," [Galatians 5:24] can be saved.

May I have joy of you in the Lord! Be ye sober. Lay aside, every one of you, all malice and beast-like fury, evil-speaking, calumny, filthy speaking, ribaldry, whispering, arrogance, drunkenness, lust, avarice, vainglory, envy, and everything akin to these. "But put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh, to fulfil the lusts thereof." Ye presbyters, be subject to the bishop; ye deacons, to the presbyters; and ye, the people, to the presbyters and the deacons. Let my soul be for theirs who preserve this good order; and may the Lord be with them continually!

"For he is the minister of God to thee for good."

So far is he from terrifying thee, he says, that he even praises thee: so far from being a hindrance to thee, that he even works with thee. When then thou hast his praise and his succor, how is it that thou art not in subjection to him? For he maketh virtue easier for thee in other ways also, by chastising the wicked, by benefiting and honoring the good, and by working together with the will of God. Whence too he has even given him the name of "Minister." And consider: I give you counsel to be sober-minded, and he, by the laws, speaks the same language. I exhort you not to be rapacious and grasping. And he sits in judgment in such cases, and so is a worker together with us, and an assistant to us, and has been commissioned by God for this end. Hence there are both reasons for reverencing him, both because he was commissioned by God, and because it was for such an object. "But if thou do that which is evil, be afraid." It is not then the ruler that maketh the fear, but our own wickedness.

"For he beareth not the sword in vain." You see how he hath furnished him with arms, and set him on guard like a soldier, for a terror to those that commit sin. "For he is the minister of God to execute wrath, a revenger upon him that doeth evil." Now lest you should start off at hearing again of punishment, and vengeance, and a sword, he says again that it is God's law he is carrying out. For what if he does not know it himself? yet it is God that hath so shaped things. If then, whether in punishing, or in honoring, he be a Minister, in avenging virtue's cause, in driving vice away, as God willeth, why be captious against him, when he is the cause of so many good doings, and paves the way for thine too? since there are many who first practised virtue through the fear of God. For there are a duller sort, whom things to come have not such a hold upon as things present. He then who by fear and rewards gives the soul of the majority a preparatory turn towards its becoming more suited for the word of doctrine, is with good reason called "the Minister of God."

"For rulers are not a terror to good works, but to the evil."

For when he has given a deep wound, and stricken them down, he again uses gentler treatment, like a wise physician, who applies soothing medicines, and he comforts them, and says, why be afraid? why shudder? For does he punish a person that is doing well? Or is he terrible to a person who lives in the practice of virtue? Wherefore also he proceeds, "Wilt thou then not be afraid of the power? Do that which is good, and thou shall have praise of the same." You see how he has made him friends with the ruler, by showing that he even praises him from his throne. You see how he has made wrath unmeaning.

"And they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation." Then to show the gain of the thing after the fear, he uses reasons too to persuade them as follows:

"But put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ."

He no longer speaks of works, but he rouses them to greater things. For when he was speaking of vice, he mentioned the works of it: but when of virtue, he speaks not of works, but of arms, to show that virtue putteth him that is possessed of it into complete safety, and complete brightness. And even here he does not pause, but leading his discourse on to what was greater, a thing far more awestriking; he gives us the Lord Himself for a garment, the King Himself: for he that is clad with Him, hath absolutely all virtue. But in saying, "Put ye on," he bids us be girt about with Him upon every side. As in another place he says, "But if Christ be in you." (Rom. viii. 10.) And again, "That Christ may dwell in the inner man." (Eph. iii. 16, 17.) For He would have our soul to be a dwelling for Himself, and Himself to be laid round about us as a garment, that He may be unto us all things both from within and from without. For He is our fulness; for He is "the fulness of Him that filleth all in all" (Eph. i. 23): and the Way, and the Husband, and the Bridegroom;-for "I have espoused you as a chaste virgin to one husband," (2 Cor. xi. 2): and a root, and drink, and meat, and life;-for he says, "I live, yet not I, but Christ liveth in me;" (Gal. ii. 20) and Apostle, and High-Priest, and Teacher, and Father, and Brother, and Joint-heir, and sharer of the tomb and Cross;-for it says, "We were buried together with Him," and "planted together in the likeness of His Death" (Rom. vi. 4, 5): and a Suppliant;-"For we are ambassadors in Christ's stead" (2 Cor. v. 20): and an "Advocate to the Father;"-for "He also maketh," it says, "intercession for us:" (Rom. viii. 34) and house and inhabitant;-for He says, "He that abideth in Me and I in him" (John xv. 5): and a Friend; for, "Ye are My friends" (John xv. 14): and a Foundation, and Corner-stone. And we are His members and His heritage, and building, and branches, and fellow-workers. For what is there that He is not minded to be to us, when He makes us cleave and fit on to Him in every way? And this is a sign of one loving exceedingly. Be persuaded then, and rousing thee from sleep, put Him on, and when thou hast done so, give thy flesh up to His bridle. For this is what he intimates in saying,

"And make not provision for the flesh, to fulfil the lusts thereof." For as he does not forbid drinking, but drinking to excess, not marrying, but doing wantonness; so too he does not forbid making provision for the flesh either, but doing so with a view "to fulfil the lusts thereof," as, for instance, by going beyond necessaries. For that he does bid make provision for it, hear from what he says to Timothy, "Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake, and thine often infirmities." (1 Tim. v. 23.) So here too he is for taking care of it, but for health, and not wantonness. For this would cease to be making provision for it, when you were lighting up the flame, when you were making the furnace powerful. But that you may form a clearer notion what "making provision" for it "to fulfil the lusts thereof" is, and may shun such a provision, just call to mind the drunken, the gluttonous, those that pride themselves in dress, those that are effeminate, them that live a soft and relaxed life, and you will see what is meant. For they do everything not that they may be healthy, but that they may be wanton and kindle desire. But do thou, who hast put on Christ, prune away all those things, and seek for one thing only, to have thy flesh in health. And to this degree do make provision for it, and not any further, but spend all thy industry on the care of spiritual things. For then you will be able to rouse yourself out of this sleep, without being weighed down with these manifold desires. For the present life is a sleep, and the things in it are no way different from dreams. And as they that are asleep often speak and see things other than healthful, so do we also, or rather we see much worse even.

Of this subject he makes much account in other epistles also, setting subjects under their rulers as household servants are under their masters. And this he does to show that it was not for the subversion of the commonwealth that Christ introduced His laws, but for the better ordering of it, and to teach men not to be taking up unnecessary and unprofitable wars. For the plots that are formed against us for the truth's sake are sufficient and we have no need to be adding temptations superfluous and unprofitable. And observe too how well-timed his entering upon this subject is. For when he had demanded that great spirit of heroism, and made men fit to deal either with friends or foes, and rendered them serviceable alike to the prosperous and those in adversity and need, and in fact to all, and had planted a conversation worthy of angels, and had discharged anger, and taken down recklessness, and had in every way made their mind even, he then introduces his exhortation upon these matters also. For if it be right to requite those that injure us with the opposite, much more is it our duty to obey those that are benefactors to us. But this he states toward the end of his exhortation, and hitherto does not enter on these reasonings which I mention, but those only that enjoin one to do this as a matter of debt. And to show that these regulations are for all, even for priests, and monks, and not for men of secular occupations only, he hath made this plan at the outset, by saying as follows: "let every soul be subject unto the higher powers," if thou be an Apostle even, or an Evangelist, or a Prophet, or anything whatsoever, inasmuch as this subjection is not subversive of religion. And he does not say merely "obey," but "be subject." And the first claim such an enactment has upon us, and the reasoning that suiteth the faithful, is, that all this is of God's appointment.

"For there is no power," he says, "but of God." What say you? it may be said; is every ruler then elected by God? This I do not say, he answers. Nor am I now speaking about individual rulers, but about the thing in itself. For that there should be rulers, and some rule and others be ruled, and that all things should not just be carried on in one confusion, the people swaying like waves in this direction and that; this, I say, is the work of God's wisdom. Hence he does not say, "for there is no ruler but of God;" but it is the thing he speaks of, and says, "there is no power but of God. And the powers that be, are ordained of God." Thus when a certain wise man saith, "It is by the Lord that a man is matched with a woman" (Prov. xix. 14, LXX.), he means this, God made marriage, and not that it is He that joineth together every man that cometh to be with a woman. For we see many that come to be with one another for evil, even by the law of marriage, and this we should not ascribe to God. But as He said Himself, "He which made them at the beginning, made them male and female, and said, For this cause shall a man leave father and mother, and shall leave to his wife, and they twain shall be one flesh." (Matt. xix. 4, Matt. xix. 5; Gen. ii. 24.) And this is what that wise man meant to explain. For since equality of honor does many times lead to fightings, He hath made many governments and forms of subjection; as that, for instance, of man and wife, that of son and father, that of old men and young, that of bond and free, that of ruler and ruled, that of master and disciple. And why are you surprised in the case of mankind, when even in the body He hath done the same thing? For even here He hath not made all parts of equal honor, but He hath made one less and another greater, and some of the limbs hath He made to rule and some to be ruled. And among the unreasoning creatures one may notice this same principle, as amongst bees, amongst cranes, amongst herds of wild cattle. And even the sea itself is not without this goodly subordination; for there too many of the clans are ranged under one among the fishes, and are led thus as an army, and make long expeditions from home. For anarchy, be where it may, is an evil, and a cause of confusion. After having said then whence governments come, he proceeds, "Whosoever therefore resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God." See what he has led the subject on to, and how fearful he makes it, and how he shows this to be a matter of debt. For lest the believers should say, You are making us very cheap and despicable, when you put us, who are to enjoy the Kingdom of Heaven, under subjection to rulers, he shows that it is not to rulers, but to God again that he makes them subject in doing this. For it is to Him, that he who subjects himself to authorities is obedient. Yet he does not say this-for instance that it is God to Whom a man who listens to authorities is obedient-but he uses the opposite case to awe them, and gives it a more precise form by saying, that he who listeneth not thereto is fighting with God, Who framed these laws. And this he is in all cases at pains to show, that it is not by way of favor that we obey them, but by way of debt. For in this way he was more likely to draw the governors who were unbelievers to religion, and the believers to obedience. For there was quite a common report in those days, which maligned the Apostles, as guilty of a sedition and revolutionary scheme, and as aiming in all they did and said at the subversion of the received institutions. When then you show our common Master giving this in charge to all His, you will at once stop the mouths of those that malign us as revolutionists, and with great boldness will speak for the doctrines of truth. Be not then ashamed, he says, at such subjection. For God hath laid down this law, and is a strong Avenger of them if they be despised. For it is no common punishment that He will exact of thee, if thou disobey, but the very greatest; and nothing will exempt thee, that thou canst say to the contrary, but both of men thou shalt undergo the most severe vengeance, and there shall be no one to defend thee, and thou wilt also provoke God the more. And all this he intimates when he says...

"Wherefore ye must needs be subject, not only for wrath but also for conscience sake."

What is the meaning of, "not only for wrath?" It means not only because thou dost resist God by not being subject, nor only because thou art procuring great evils for thyself, both from God and the rulers, but also because he is a benefactor to thee in things of the greatest importance, as he procures peace to thee, and the blessings of civil institutions. For there are countless blessings to states through these authorities; and if you were to remove them, all things would go to ruin, and neither city nor country, nor private nor public buildings, nor anything else would stand, but all the world will be turned upside down, while the more powerful devour the weaker. And so even if some wrath were not to follow man's disobedience, even on this ground thou oughtest to be subject, that thou mayest not seem devoid of conscience and feeling towards the benefactor.

Since he had given them what commands were fitting, he again thrusts them on to the performance of good works, in consideration of what was pressing upon them. For the time of judgment, he means, is at the doors. So too he wrote to the Corinthians also, "The remaining time is short." (1 Cor. vii. 29.) And to the Hebrews again, "For yet a little while, and He that shall come will come, and will not tarry." (Heb. x. 37.) But in those cases it was to cheer those in trouble, and to solace the toils of their closely successive temptations, that he said those things: but in the passage before us he does it to rouse those that are asleep, this language being useful to us for both the purposes: and what is that which he says, "Now it is high time to awake out of sleep?" It is, that near is the Resurrection, near the awful Judgment, and the day that burneth as a furnace, near. Henceforward then we must be free from our listlessness; "for now is our salvation nearer than when we believed." You see how he puts the Resurrection now close by them. For as the time advances, he means, the season of our present life is wasting away, and that of the life to come waxes nearer. If then thou be prepared, and hast done all whatsoever He hath commanded, the day is salvation to thee; but if the contrary, not so. For the present however, it is not upon alarming grounds that he exhorts them, but upon kindly ones, thus also to untie them from their fellow-feeling for the things of this present world. Then since it was not unlikely, that in the beginning of their early endeavors they would be most earnest, in that their desire was then at its full vigor, but that as the time went on, the whole of their earnestness would wither down to nothing; he says that they ought however to be doing the reverse, not to get relaxed as time went on, but to be the more full of vigor. For the nearer the King may be at hand, the more ought they to get themselves in readiness; the nearer the prize is, the more wide awake ought they to be for the contest, since even the racers do this, when they are upon the end of the course, and towards the receiving of the prize, then they rouse themselves up the more. This is why he said, "Now is our salvation nearer than when we believed."

"For, for this cause pay ye tribute also; for they are God's ministers, attending continually on this very thing."

Without going one by one into the benefits done to states by the rulers, as that of good order and peace, the other services, as regarding the soldiery, and those over the public business, he shows the whole of this by a single case. For that thou art benefited by him, he means, thou bearest witness thyself, by paying him a salary. Observe the wisdom and judgment of the blessed Paul. For that which seemed to be burdensome and annoying -the system of imposts-this he turns into a proof of their care for men. What is the reason, he means, that we pay tribute to a king? It is not as providing for us? And yet we should not have paid it unless we had known in the first instance that we were gainers from this superintendence. Yet it was for this that from of old all men came to an agreement that governors should be maintained by us, because to the neglect of their own affairs, they take charge of the public, and on this they spend their whole leisure, whereby our goods also are kept safe. After saying then what the external goods are, he again averts to the former line of argument (for in this way he was more likely to attract the believer to him), and he shows again that this is God's decree, and on it he makes his advice rest finally, in these words, "they are God's ministers." Then to show the pains they take, and their hard life, he proceeds,

"Waiting continually upon this very thing."

For this is their life, this their business, that thou mayest enjoy peace. Wherefore in another Epistle, he bids them not only be subject, but also "pray" in their behalf. And as showing there too that the advantage was common to all, he adds, "that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all things." (1 Tim. ii. 1, 2.) For it is in no small degree that they contribute to the settled state of the present life, by keeping guard, beating off enemies, hindering those who are for sedition in the cities, putting an end to differences among any. For do not tell me of some one who makes an ill use of the thing, but look to the good order that is in the institution itself, and you will see the great wisdom of Him who enacted this law from the first.

"Love worketh no ill to his neighbor, therefore love is the fulfilling of the Law."

Observe how it has both virtues, abstinence from evils (for it "worketh no ill," he says), and the working of good deeds. "For it is," he says, "the fulfilling (or filling up) of the Law;" not bringing before us instruction only on moral duties in a concise form, but making the accomplishment of them easy also. For that we should become acquainted with things profitable to us was not all that he was careful for (which is the Law's care), but also with a view to the doing of them it brought us great assistance; accomplishing not some part of the commandments, but the whole sum of virtue in us. Let us then love one another, since in this way we shall also love God, Who loveth us. For in the case of men, if you love a man's beloved, he that loveth him is contentious at it. But here He deemeth thee worthy to share His love, and hateth thee when thou sharest not. For man's love is laden with envy and grudging; but God's is free from all passion, whence also He seeketh for those to share His love. For He says, love thou with Me, and then thyself also will I love the more. You see the words of a vehement lover! If thou love My beloved, then will I also reckon Myself to be greatly beloved of thee. For He vehemently desireth our salvation, and this He showed from of old.

"Not in rioting and drunkenness." Not that he would forbid drinking, but the doing it immoderately; not the enjoying of wine, but doing it to excess. As also the next thing he states likewise with the same measure, in the words,

"Not in chambering and wantonness;" for here also he does not prohibit the intercourse of the sexes, but committing fornication. "Not in strife and envying." It is the deadly kind of passions then that he is for extinguishing, lust, namely, and anger. Wherefore it is not themselves only, but even the sources of them that he removes. For there is nothing that so kindles lust, and inflames wrath, as drunkenness, and sitting long at the wine. Wherefore after first saying, "not in rioting and drunkenness," then he proceeded with, "not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying." And even here he does not pause, but after stripping us of these evil garments, hear how he proceeds to ornament us, when he says...

"For this, Thou shall not commit adultery, Thou shall not kill, Thou shall not steal, Thou shall not bear false witness, and any other commandment, is briefly comprehended in this saying, Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself."

He does not say merely it is fulfilled, but "it is briefly comprehended," that is, the whole work of the commandments is concisely and in a few words completed. For the beginning and the end of virtue is love. This it has for its root, this for its groundwork, this for its summit. If then it be both beginning and fulfilment, what is there equal to it? But he does not seek love merely, but intense love. For he does not say merely "love thy neighbor" but, "as thyself." Hence also Christ said that "the Law and the Prophets hang upon" it. And in making two kinds of love, see how He has raised this! For after saying that the first commandment is, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God," He added a second; and He did not stay, but added, "like unto it; Thou shall love thy neighbor as thyself." What can be equal to this love to man, or this gentleness? That when we were at infinite distance from Him, He brings the love to us into comparison with that toward Himself, and says that "is like unto this." Hence then, to put the measures of either as nearly the same, of the one He says, "with all thy heart, and with all thy soul," but of this towards one's neighbor, He says, "as thyself." But Paul said, that when this did not exist even the other was of no great profit to us. As then we, when we are fond of any one, say, if you love him, then you love me; so He also to show this saith, "is like unto it;" and to Peter, "If thou lovest Me, feed My sheep." (John xxi. 16.)

"Owe no man anything, but to love one another." Again he has recourse to the mother of good deeds, and the instructress of the things spoken of, who is also productive of every virtue, and says that this is a debt also, not however such as the tribute or the custom, but a continuous one. For he does not wish it ever to be paid off, or rather he would have it always rendered, yet never fully so, but to be always owing. For this is the character of the debt, that one keeps giving and owing always. Having said then how he ought to love, he also shows the gain of it, saying,

"For he that loveth another hath fulfilled the Law."

And do not, pray, consider even this a favor; for this too is a debt. For thou owest love to thy brother, through thy spiritual relationship. And not for this only, but also because "we are members one of another." And if love leave us, the whole body is rent in pieces. Love therefore thy brother. For if from his friendship thou gainest so much as to fulfil the whole Law, thou owest him love as being benefited by him.

"The night is far spent, the day is at hand."

If then this is upon ending, and the latter is drawing near, let us henceforth do what belongs to the latter, not to the former. For this is what is done in the things of this life. And when we see the night pressing on towards the morning, and hear the swallow twittering, we each of us awake our neighbor, although it be night still. But so soon as it is actually departing, we hasten one another, and say It is day now! and we all set about the works of the day, dressing, and leaving our dreams, and shaking our sleep thoroughly off, that the day may find us ready, and we may not have to begin getting up, and stretching ourselves, when the sunlight is up. What then we do in that case, that let us do here also. Let us put off imaginings, let us get clear of the dreams of this life present, let us lay aside its deep slumber, and be clad in virtue for garments. For it is to point out all this that he says,

"Let us therefore cast off the works of darkness, and let us put on the armor of light."

Yes, for the day is calling us to battle-array, and to the fight. Yet fear not at hearing of array and arms. For in the case of the visible suit of armor, to put it on is a heavy and abhorred task. But here it is desirable, and worth being prayed for. For it is of Light the arms are! Hence they will set thee forth brighter than the sunbeam, and giving out a great glistening, and they place thee in security: for they are arms, and glittering do they make thee: for arms of light are they! What then, is there no necessity for thee to fight? yea, needful is it to fight, yet not to be distressed and toil. For it is not in fact war, but a solemn dance and feast-day, such is the nature of the arms, such the power of the Commander. And as the bridegroom goes forth with joyous looks from his chamber, so doth he too who is defended with these arms. For he is at once soldier and bridegroom. But when he says, "the day is at hand," he does not even allow it to be but near, but puts it even now beside us. For he says,

"Let us walk becomingly, as in the day." For day it already is. And what most people insist upon very much in their exhortations, that he also uses to draw them on, the sense of the becoming. For they had a great regard to the esteem of the multitude. And he does not say, walk ye, but let us walk, so making the exhortation free from anything grating, and the reproof gentle.

"Render therefore to all their dues; tribute to whom tribute, custom to whom custom, fear to whom fear, honor to whom honor."

He still keeps upon the same line, bidding them pay them not money only, but honor and fear. And how is it when he said above, "Wilt thou not be afraid of the power? do that which is good;" that he here says "render fear?" He does it meaning exceeding honor, and not the fear which comes from a bad conscience, which he alluded to before And it is not "give," that he says, but "render" (or "give back"), and then adds to it, the "dues." For it is not a favor that you confer by so doing, since the thing is matter of due. And if you do it not, you will be punished as Obstinate. Do not suppose that you are lowering yourself, and detracting from the dignity of your own philosophy, if you rise up at the presence of a ruler, or if you uncover your head. For if he laid these laws down at that time, when the rulers were Gentiles, much more ought this to be done with them now they are believers. But if you mean to say, that you are entrusted with greater privileges, be informed that this is not thy time. For thou art a stranger and a sojourner. A time will be when thou shalt appear brighter than all. Now thy "life is hid with Christ in God. When Christ shall appear, then shall ye also appear with Him in glory" (Col. iii. 3, 4.) Seek not then in this life of accidents thy change, but even if thou hast to be with fear in a ruler's presence, do not think that this is unworthy thy noble birth. For so God willeth, that the ruler who has his place marked by Him, should have his own power; And when he who is conscious of no evil in himself, stands with fear in the judge's presence, much more will he who doth evil things be affrighted, and thou in this way wilt be the more respected. For it is not from honoring that the lowering of self comes but from dishonoring him. And the ruler will treat thee with greater respect, and he will glorify thy Master owing to this, even if he be an unbeliever.

The authorities are concerned for your safety. They also have the responsibility to see to it that if you sin you do not profit thereby, because God does not love the wicked and hates all who "work iniquity."

The wicked should be afraid of the authorities, but the good have no reason to fear, for they come into glory if they are killed unjustly. Paul says: "Take my advice and you will never be afraid." Condemnation of the wicked is in itself commendation of the good.

As it was said to Rahab: "Whoever goes outside will be responsible for himself."

Christ alone should be seen in us, not the old self, for "one who says he abides in Christ should walk as he walked."

This is an argument against those who thought that they were obliged to use their Christian freedom in such a way that they gave honor or paid taxes to nobody. Paul wants to humble such people in any way he can, so that they will not suffer reproach on account of their pride instead of on account of God.It seems that Paul is speaking of secular authorities, not all of whom will be just, even if they received their authority from God.… The ruler is set up by God to judge with righteousness, so that sinners might have reason to be afraid should they sin.

You must be subject, not only because the authorities can become angry even without cause but also so that you may not be condemned for the consciousness of some sin.

It is the hour for you to strive for that which is more perfect and complete, for you should not always be children and infants.… Let us together rise from the sleep of idleness and ignorance, for now the knowledge of Christ shines forth. With the increase of knowledge our salvation is nearer than it was when we first believed.

Taxes can also mean taxes for the priests, which were set up for them by God. Or this may mean that you pay taxes to rulers because, in possessing the world, you subjected yourselves to them willingly. Paul calls them "God's servants," so that people might render to them what they owe, lest it seem that Christ taught his followers pride.

Even not to do good is wrong. For if one sees that one's neighbor is in danger of starvation, does one not kill him if, while one has an abundance, one does not give him food, though one has not used up one's own provisions? For anyone who is able to help someone close to death in whatever situation of need kills that person if he does not come to his aid.

Just as the light of day keeps everyone from doing what he would freely do at night, so too, knowledge keeps us from ignoring the commands of the law. A revel is a luxurious banquet, but we have a spiritual feast. Moreover, that drunkenness is ruinous and an occasion for debauchery is further proved by the fact that Paul has added "licentiousness." That quarrelling and jealousy are also objects of reproach is demonstrated both here and by many other examples.

The whole of righteousness is summed up in the love of one's neighbor. Unrighteousness is born when we love ourselves more than others. For one who loves his neighbor as himself not only does him no wrong but also does him good. He knows how much he wishes both aspects to be done with regard to himself.

Do not fail to repay debts. Only the debt of love should remain, because it can never be paid in full. According to the parable of the Lord, who bids us show mercy to everyone without distinction, we must think of every person as our neighbor. Paul mentioned love first because he was writing to the faithful and dealing with behavior proper to righteousness.

Paul likens knowledge to the day and ignorance to the night, in accordance with what Hosea says: "I have likened your mother to the night; my people have become as those who have no knowledge." Let us therefore cast off the works of ignorance and put on the armor of light, that is, works of light.

Even alms can be called a due. Revenue is ours to give to those who are passing by or to those who are seated by the roadside while we pass by.… Fear as well as honor must be given to those who are your superiors but only honor to your peers.

Whence the apostle also says: "The night is past, and the day is at hand." Therefore this present age is the night: but the age to come is the day. Whence the apostle says: "The night is past, and the day is at hand. Let us walk honestly, as in the day," he says. As we are to live in the day, that is, in the age to come, so let us now live.

Paul wants to say that by the regeneration of baptism we have been conformed to Christ and become members of the one body of the church, of which he is the head, and so we must put him on in the understanding of what we are expecting, in that we hope to share in his resurrection.

"Our salvation" means the general resurrection on the last day, for it is then that we shall enjoy true salvation.

Every law either forbids evil or tells us to do good. Legislators pass the first kind of law in order that we should not harm one another and the second kind in order that we should help one another as far as possible. But they are all summed up in the one command that we should love our neighbor.

By "day" Paul means the time since the coming of Christ, for his appearing has made it much easier to tell the difference between good and evil. "Night" refers to the time before his coming.

"Taxes" refers to property taxes; "revenue" refers to sales taxes.

When Paul says: "He is God's servant for your good," though it be for his own evil, this should be understood in the same way as the above.

This can upset some people, when they think that Christians have often suffered persecution by these authorities. They say: "Were these Christians not doing good, since not only did the authorities not praise them, they punished and killed them!" The apostle's words must be carefully considered. He does not say: "Do what is good and the authorities will praise you," but: "Do what is good and you will have praise from him." Whether someone in authority approves what you do or persecutes you, "you will have praise from him," either when you win it by your obedience to God or when you earn your crown by persecution.

Provision for the flesh is not to be condemned if it has to do with the needs of bodily health. But if it is a question of unnecessary delights or luxuries, a person who enjoys the delights of the flesh is rightly chastised. For in that case he makes provision for the desires of the flesh, and "he who sows in the flesh will reap corruption in the flesh."

Most rightly, Paul warns against anyone who is puffed up with pride by the fact that he has been called by his Lord into freedom and become a Christian, and therefore thinks that he does not have to keep the status given to him in the course of this life or submit to the higher powers to whom the government of temporal things has been confided for a time. For because we are made of soul and body and as long as we are in this life we make use of temporal things as a means of living this life, it is fitting that, as far as this life is concerned, we be subject to the authorities, i.e., to the people who with some recognition administer human affairs. But as far as the spiritual side is concerned, in which we believe in God and are called into his kingdom, it is not right for us to be subject to any man who seeks to overturn in us the very thing which God has been pleased to grant us so that we might obtain eternal life.So if anyone thinks that because he is a Christian he does not have to pay taxes or tribute nor show the proper respect to the authorities who take care of these things, he is in very great error. Likewise, if anyone thinks that he ought to submit to the point where he accepts that someone who is his superior in temporal affairs should have authority even over his faith, he falls into an even greater error. But the balance which the Lord himself prescribed is to be maintained: "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's but unto God the things which are God's." For although we are called into that kingdom where there will be no power of this world, nevertheless, while we are on the way there and until we have reached that state where every principality and power will be destroyed, let us put up with our condition for the sake of human affairs, doing nothing falsely and in this very thing obeying God, who commands us to do it, rather than men.

This is helpful for understanding that because of this life we must be subject and not offer resistance if anyone wants to take something from us, if it is in his power to do so, because authority has been given to him over temporal things, which will pass away. We are not to be subject in those good things which remain forever but only in the needs of this age.But when he says "one must be subject," lest anyone submit to the authorities halfheartedly and not from pure love, Paul adds: "not only to avoid … wrath but also for the sake of conscience." That is to say, you should not submit simply to avoid the authority's anger, which can be done by pretense, but so that you might be assured in your conscience that you are doing this out of love for him. For you submit at your Lord's command.

This relates to Corinthians [:]: "Behold, now is the acceptable time, now is the day of salvation." Paul means by this the time of the gospel and the opportunity to save all those who believe in God.

This relates to 2 Corinthians [6:2]: "Behold, now is the acceptable time, now is the day of salvation." Paul means by this the time of the gospel and the opportunity to save all those who believe in God.

The rule of love is that one should wish his friend to have all the good things he wants to have himself and should not wish the evils to befall his friend which he wishes to avoid himself. He shows this benevolence to all men. No evil must be done to any. Love of one's neighbor works no evil. Let us then love even our enemies as we are commanded, if we wish to be truly unconquered.

This law is not written on tables of stone but is shed abroad in our hearts through the Holy Spirit who is given to us.

No one loves his neighbor unless he loves God, and by loving him as himself, to the limit of his ability, he pours out his love on him so that he too may love God. But if he does not love God, he loves neither himself nor his neighbor.

Paul shows that the fulfillment of the law is found in love, i.e., in charity. Thus also the Lord says that the whole law and prophets depend on these two precepts, the love of God and neighbor. So he who came to fulfill the law gave love through the Holy Spirit, so that charity might accomplish what fear could not.

The only way of cleaving to that pattern is by love. If we love another whom we believe to be righteous, we cannot but love the pattern itself, which shows us what the righteous soul is, in order that we too may become righteous. Indeed, if we did not love the image of God in him, we would have no love for the person, since our love for him is based on the pattern. Yet so long as we ourselves are not righteous, our love of the pattern is not enough to make us righteous.

Paul said this, yet look at how many years have passed since then! Yet what he said was not untrue. How much more probable it is that the coming of the Lord is near now, when there has been such an increase of time toward the end!

Even priests, bishops and monks must obey the commands of secular rulers. Of course, they must do so insofar as obedience is consistent with godliness. If the rulers demand something which is ungodly, then on no account are they allowed to do it.The holy apostle teaches us that both authorities and obedience depend entirely on God's providence, but he does not say that God has specifically appointed one person or another to exercise that authority. For it is not the wickedness of individual rulers which comes from God but the establishment of the ruling power itself.… Since God wants sinners to be punished, he is prepared to tolerate even bad rulers.

"For the sake of conscience" means "in order to do what is right."

If a man is well disposed by love for another person, he will not kill the one he loves, nor will he rape his wife, nor will he steal goods or do anything which might harm them.

"Night" refers to the time of ignorance, whereas "day" refers to the time after the Lord's coming.

Every day the end comes closer, and we are already on the threshold of the resurrection.

"Taxes" and "revenue" are the same thing.

Let us then be strong in the war against this evil lust which although it be a good thing when coupled with marriage in the world, is accounted a vice if it be wrought by disciples; for not every thing is good for every man, even though it be very fair and good in its nature, for riches in the nature of their creation by their Maker are good, but if solitaries, who are commanded not to have two tunics, and not to take care for the morrow, acquire them, the possession thereof to them is a vice. And the eating of flesh and the drinking of wine is pure unto those who devote themselves unto the life of the world, but for those who of their own will have given themselves unto the maintenance of the election of the discipleship of Christ, it is not right to make use of things, except for necessity's sake. And, moreover, good and fair also are the powers and dominions of this world, for it is written, "There is no dominion which is not from God", but for those who have separated themselves from human habitation, and have promised to do great and sublime things, to desire human grades of honour is a subject for rebuke and reproach. And dwelling in cities and villages, and the habitation in the world, and life and intercourse among the children of men are not blameworthy, but for those who have become destitute for the love of God, and who have once cast off the world of their own free-will, and have gone forth to become solitaries and ascetics outside it, the dwelling among and intercourse with the children of men are unto them subjects for reprehension and blame; and there are many things like these, the doing of which is blameless unto those who have not already bound themselves by a covenant against them, but if they be done by those who have promised to abstain from them they are blameworthy.

Therefore, whatever you do, do it for the love of Christ, and let the intention or end of all your actions look to him. Do nothing for the sake of human praise but everything for the love of God and the desire for eternal life. Then you will see the end of all perfection, and when you have reached it you will want nothing more.

He, it says, assists the will of God. For example: God counsels you to be chaste, and the ruler prescribes the same through laws. God exhorts you not to be covetous and a thief, and the ruler is appointed as judge over the same. Consequently, he is our helper in good works, if we submit ourselves to him.

So then, it is not the ruler who produces fear in us, but our own vices, on account of which the ruler's sword also exists, that is, the authority to punish. The ruler, he says, does not gird himself with the sword in vain, but in order to punish the wicked.

When a ruler praises virtue, he fulfills the will of God; and when he puts the sword to use, he is a servant of God, defending virtue and driving away vice. Many do good not so much out of the fear of God as out of fear of rulers. Therefore, when a ruler defends virtue and punishes vice, he is a servant of God.

What are you afraid of and why do you tremble? Does the ruler rebuke you if you do good? Is he fearsome to you if you are zealous for virtue? On the contrary, if you do good, the ruler is appointed to praise you. He is so far from instilling fear in you that he even praises you.

Lest the believers should say: you demean us by subjecting to rulers those who are to receive the Heavenly Kingdom, he shows that he who obeys the authorities obeys God, or, what is far more fearful, he who disobeys the authorities resists God Who established the authorities, and he who resists will be punished both by God and by men. The latter he suggested by saying: "those who resist will bring judgment upon themselves."

Having stripped from us the garment of sin, He finally adorns us, clothing us no longer in the armor of light, but, what is even more awe-inspiring, making the Master Himself our garment. Whoever is clothed in this garment possesses every virtue.

He does not forbid care for the body, but "lusts." Take care, he says, of the body for health, not for licentiousness. For it would not be care if you were to kindle a flame and heat the furnace to your own harm. Strive only to have a healthy body, and beyond that, do not be concerned, and do not kindle the lusts of the body, but direct all your diligence toward the spiritual.

Having offered his listeners sufficient moral instruction and having taught them to be benevolent even toward enemies, he presents the current exhortation as well, teaching every soul, whether one be a priest, a monk, or an apostle, to submit to the authorities; for this submission does not undermine piety. And the apostle presents this exhortation with the purpose of showing that the Gospel teaches not sedition or disobedience to authority, but a noble way of thinking and obedience.

What are you saying? Is every ruler appointed by God? – That is not what I am saying, – he replies. My discourse now is not about each individual ruler, but about rulership itself. That there are authorities, that some rule and others are subject, and that there is no confusion between the higher and the lower – this I call a work of the wisdom of God. For he did not say: there is no ruler, but "there is no authority except from God." Therefore, I say, he reasons about the matter itself, about authority. Similarly, when the wise man says, "a prudent wife is from the Lord" (Prov. 19:14), he does not mean that God unites everyone who enters into marriage, but that marriage was established by God. So then, all authorities, whichever you may consider – whether of a father over a son, or of a husband over a wife, or all the rest, even those that exist among animals, for example among bees, cranes, and fish – all were established by God.

It is necessary for you, he says, to obey not only so that you do not experience the wrath both of God and of the ruler, as one who is insubordinate, and do not undergo unbearable punishment, but also so that you do not prove to be unconscionable and ungrateful to your benefactor. The authorities provide great benefits to states. Through them our well-being is maintained, and if they did not exist, everything would have long since been overthrown because the strongest would have swallowed up the weakest. Therefore, let your own conscience, he says, persuade you to honor those who provide you with so many good things.

You must, he says, value love very highly, and through it — all the other virtues. Such is the time. The day of resurrection is near, the judgment is near, and we must awaken from the sleep of negligence and be ready for deeds worthy of the resurrection.

Probably they at the beginning, upon their conversion, were most zealous, but then, with the passage of time, grew cold. Therefore he says: now we are closer to the future age; for this is what he means by "salvation," having called it so from its better side, because for sinners it is not salvation, but perdition. And as we draw near to the future life, we must intensify our attention. This is what he shows further.

You yourself testify that the ruler benefits you, because you give him compensation, obviously, as one who provides for you. We would not have been paying taxes from the beginning if we did not know that we receive benefit from the authorities, those who hold office tirelessly keeping watch on our behalf, while we are free from such cares.

Therefore it is also pleasing to God that we pay taxes to His ministers. God desires that in civil society there be peace, that people live virtuously, and that vice be defeated; and it is precisely in this that rulers serve the will of God, zealously caring for the common tranquility, applying tireless diligence so that we may lead our lives in peace and quiet. If someone misuses authority, this says nothing against the benefit of authority itself.

He shows that love has both kinds of perfection. When he says that "love does no evil to one's neighbor," he indicates that it is abstention from evil, and with the words "love is the fulfillment of the law" he points out that it is the doing of good. Thus, love accomplishes in us the virtue indicated by the law, in all its fullness.

Above he said: "the day has drawn near," but now he shows that it is already arriving, and teaches to conduct oneself in it with decorum. With decorum he attracts those who greatly respected public opinion; and he did not say: conduct yourselves, — but "let us conduct ourselves," making his exhortation bearable. For nothing is so unseemly as sin, and nothing so imparts comeliness as virtue.

He does not prohibit drinking, but drinking without measure; not the use of wine, but drunkenness. "Reveling" is called the state of being drunk combined with insults, which is also called disorderly conduct in a drunken state.

Having spoken before about drunkenness, he now speaks of the evil that comes from it; for debauchery comes from drunkenness, and here he cuts off not association with women, but fornication.

Having extinguished the evil born from lust, he now suppresses also that evil which comes from anger. For nothing so kindles lust and inflames anger as drunkenness and disorderly conduct in a drunken state. From envy comes strife or quarreling, because the one who envies another goes so far as quarrels. Therefore, having removed quarreling, he ascends also to its origin — envy. He mentions strife and envy together with debauchery because from the latter come conflicts and the ruin of households.

He did not say "is completed," but "is summed up," that is, in this commandment the entire body of commandments is contained in summary. For the beginning and the end of virtue is love. Furthermore, the law requires love in the highest degree. "Love," it says, "your neighbor as yourself," but our Lord requires more, having taught that we should love our neighbor more than ourselves; for He teaches us to lay down our life for a friend (John 15:13).

Pay your other debts, he says. But love—never wish to pay it off; rather, always keep it as a permanent debt. If you always show your neighbor the disposition of one who loves, do not imagine that therefore tomorrow you may neglect him; on the contrary, always consider that the debt of loving your neighbor rests upon you.

He who loves his neighbor fulfills the law. Therefore everyone should love his neighbor, because he receives from him and from love toward him so many benefits that he fulfills the whole law.

That is, the night will soon end. For example: let us suppose that the night consists of twelve hours. When ten hours have passed, we say that the night is far spent (προέκοψεν), meaning: it has passed, it is near its end. He calls the present age night, because in it many are in darkness and the life of each person is covered in darkness; and he calls the future age day, both because of the brightness of the righteous, and because then the secrets of all will be revealed. In the Gospel, however, the present age is called day because during it one must work, and the future age is called night because then no one can work (Jn. 9:4).

He called sinful actions "works," as something laborious, accompanied by great difficulties, subject to a thousand dangers even in the present age; and he called virtuous actions "armor of light," for they place the one who possesses them in safety, as armor does, and make him radiant, as armor of light. By the words "let us cast off" and "let us put on," he showed the ease of both—that is, both of departing from evil works and of turning to virtue. Just as it is not difficult to take off one garment and put on another, so it is possible to depart from vice and embrace virtue.

Gratitude toward rulers is, he says, your inescapable debt. Render therefore what is due to everyone to whom various authorities have been entrusted: to whom tribute is due, that is, the poll tax, render tribute; and to whom custom is due, that is, payment for land, render custom. But do not give money alone. Render also fear, that is, respect, reverence, and distinguished honor. Therefore he adds: "to whom honor, honor." Fear is of two kinds. One fear is that which criminals feel — fear proceeding from a bad conscience: this fear the apostle already rejected earlier. The other fear is that which those who love have toward the beloved, that is, the highest degree of respect, as it is said: "there is no want to them that fear Him" (Ps. 34:9) and: "the fear of the Lord is clean, enduring forever" (Ps. 19:9). Here reverence is meant.

No one is saved without knowledge of himself, from which indeed the mother of salvation, humility, arises, and the fear of the Lord, which itself, just as it is the beginning of wisdom, so also is the beginning of salvation. No one, I say, is saved without that knowledge, who yet has the age and faculty of knowing. This I say on account of little children and the mentally deficient, whose case is different. What if you are ignorant of God? Can there be hope of salvation with ignorance of God? Not even this. For you can neither love one whom you do not know, nor possess one whom you have not loved. Know yourself therefore, that you may fear God; know him, that you may likewise appease him. In the one you are initiated into wisdom, in the other you are also brought to perfection, because the beginning of wisdom is the fear of the Lord, and the fullness of the law is love. Both ignorances therefore must be guarded against by you, just as without the fear and love of God salvation cannot exist. The rest are indifferent, having neither salvation if they are known, nor damnation if they are not known.

It is necessary to have a just intention, so that the man who is the minister of the law slays a man by law, not from the desire for vengeance, but from the love of justice. Whence the Apostle to the Romans, speaking to rulers, says that "the ruler does not bear the sword without cause. For he is the minister of God, an avenger unto wrath against him who does evil."

Although diverse persons are bound to diverse others by many bonds to the subjection of obedience, according to what the Apostle says: Let every soul be subject to the higher powers, Romans 13, and this according to the diversity of ranks, offices, and powers: nevertheless all this variety must be reduced to one supreme and first person, in whom the universal sovereignty over all principally resides: not only to God himself and Christ, the mediator of God and men, but also to his Vicar; and this not by human statute, but by divine statute, by which Christ established Peter as the prince of the Apostles.

For sacred Scripture is principally concerned with the works of reparation. Whence it treats chiefly of faith, hope, and charity, through which virtues the soul must be reformed, and most especially of charity. Of which the Apostle says that it is the end of the commandment, insofar as it proceeds from a pure heart and a good conscience and faith unfeigned. It is the fullness of the Law, as the same Apostle says. And our Savior asserts that the whole Law and the Prophets depend on the two precepts of the same, namely the love of God and of neighbor; which two are intimated in the one Spouse of the Church, Jesus Christ, who is at once neighbor and God, at once brother and lord, at once also king and friend, at once the uncreated and incarnate Word, our maker and remaker, as the Alpha and the Omega; who is also the supreme hierarch, purging and illuminating and perfecting the spouse, namely the whole Church and every holy soul.

In the father is understood the notion of friendliness: and in this we understand that by reason of origin every person is lovable and ought to be loved, and every person is bound to honor another. Whence the Apostle: In honor anticipating one another; and again: Render to all what is owed; to whom honor, honor. Owe no one anything, except to love one another. For a person ought to love another, willing good to each one with respect to affection, with respect to deed, and with respect to outward expression.

The Church is a union of rational men united in harmonious and uniform adherence to divine peace. For the Church in return loves itself. And love is born of obedience to the Law. And the Law itself commands love: Now "the purpose of this charge is charity, from a pure heart and a good conscience and faith unfeigned." And again, "he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the Law." And this can be proved in the Saviour's own words: "On these two commandments depend the whole Law and the Prophets." And so it is fitting that those who obey the Law be loving also.

To the objection that it belongs to perfection to serve freely and to flee obligations: it must be said that there is an obligation arising from the guilt of fault and from the affection of perfect charity. The first obligation is to be avoided, but the second is to be embraced, according to what is said in Romans 13: Owe no man anything, except to love one another. For the Lord praises the friendship of spiritual men, which is made from the mammon of iniquity; and it pertains to the perfection of the mystical body of Christ that the members share with one another according to the principle of giving and receiving, so that mutual need may be supplied in turn.

And so, these virtues without form or clothing are those of the philosophers, while ours are clothed. But they must be clothed with the gold of love, for all the walls of the temple were covered with gold. Also, with the oil of unction, because all the vessels were sanctified by the oil of unction. And so, they are not divided. The night is far advanced; the day is at hand. Let us therefore put on the armor of light, that is, the four virtues originated by faith, lifted up by hope, and fulfilled by charity. These four virtues, clothed in such a manner, are symbolized by the four rivers of paradise, the four sides of the city, and the four ornaments of the tabernacle, in so far as they are originated, endowed with form, and stabilized.

In the father is understood the notion of friendliness: and in this we understand that by reason of origin every person is lovable and ought to be loved, and every person is bound to honor another. Whence the Apostle: In honor anticipating one another; and again: Render to all what is owed; to whom honor, honor. Owe no one anything, except to love one another. For a person ought to love another, willing good to each one with respect to affection, with respect to deed, and with respect to outward expression.

Fourth, he assigns the reason, saying: for he is God's minister to you for good. This is clear in regard to the proper order of rulers. For they are under the authority of God, the supreme ruler, as his ministers: because as ministers of his kingdom, you did not rule rightly (Wis 6:4). But the ruler and the ministers work for the same end: like the magistrate of the people, so are his officials (Sir 10:2). Therefore, just as God works for the good of those who do good, so also do rulers, if they perform their office properly.

Furthermore, even wicked rulers are God's ministers for inflicting punishments according to God's plan; although this is not their intention: ah, Assyria, the rod of my anger, the staff of my fury . . . but he does not so intend (Isa 10:5). Behold I will send, and take all the kindreds of the north, says the Lord, and Nabuchodonosor the king of Babylon my servant: and I will bring them against this land, and against the inhabitants thereof, and against all the nations that are round about it (Jer 25:9). And also because such wicked rulers sometimes afflict good men, God permitting, who profit thereby; for we know that in everything God works for the good with those who love him (Rom 8:28).

Then when he says but if you do evil, he shows the necessity of this teaching. For it has been stated that if you do right, you will not fear authority; but if you do evil, be afraid, because you have reason to fear: destruction to evildoers (Prov 10:29); wickedness is a cowardly thing, condemned by its own testimony (Wis 17:11).

Second, he assigns the reason, saying: for he carries not the sword in vain. He uses language in keeping with the practice of rulers who carried the instruments of punishment as signs of their power; for example, a bundle of rods for whipping, and axes or swords for killing: be afraid of the sword, for wrath brings the punishment of the sword (Job 19:29).

Third, he explains the reason, saying: he carries, I say, the sword, because he is God's minister, an avenger to execute his wrath, i.e., God's wrath, i.e., his just judgment, upon him that does evil: behold, I will gather together all your lovers . . . and I will judge you as adulteresses . . . and I will deliver you into their hands (Ezek 16:37ff.). Those who do evil are an abomination to kings, for the throne is established by justice (Prov 16:12).

From this it is clear that it is not only lawful but meritorious for rulers to execute vengeance on the wicked, when it is done out of zeal for justice. Hence: and it shall be wages for his army, and for the service that he has done me against it (Ezek 29:19ff.).

Then, when he says, for rulers, he assigns the reason for what he had said. First, he presents the reason; second, from this reason he draws a useful teaching, at do you will then to not fear the power?; third, he shows the necessity of this teaching, at but if you do evil.

First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that those who resist power, incur damnation, for rulers, who are here called powers, are not a terror, i.e., a cause of terror, to good work, i.e., because of good conduct, but to the evil, i.e., because of bad conduct.

It seems that this should be understood with reference to the reason for establishing rulers. For the reason why rulers are established is in order that those who are not inclined by any love of virtue to avoid evil and do good, may do so by fear of punishment: a king who sits on the throne of judgment winnows all evil with his eyes (Prov 20:8). And according to this interpretation it says that rulers are not a terror to good conduct but to bad as regards what rulers do in virtue of their office, as Isaiah says, but the prince will devise such things as are worthy of a prince (Isa 32:8).

This can also refer to evil rulers, who are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad. For even though they sometimes unjustly persecute those who do good, the latter have no reason to fear; because if they endure it patiently, it turns out for their good: even if you do suffer for justice's sake, you will be blessed. Have no fear of them, nor be troubled (1 Pet 3:14).

From what is said here the reason can be assigned why those who resist authority incur condemnation, whether it be the punishment inflicted by rulers on those who rebel, or the damnation by which men are punished by God. For if rulers are a terror to bad conduct, it follows that those who resist their authority are acting wickedly and thus are the cause of their temporal and eternal punishment.

Then when he says, do you will then to not fear, he draws a useful teaching from what he had said, namely, how to avoid the terror of rulers. First, he suggests by his question that this is desirable, saying: do you will then to not fear power? As if to say: this should appeal to a person: as the roar of a lion, so is the terror of a king (Prov 20:2).

Second, he shows how to avoid this fear, saying: do what is good. For it says in Proverbs: righteous lips are the delight of a king (Prov 16:13), and in a psalm: he who walks in the way that is blameless shall minister to me (Ps 101:6).

Third, he shows the effect of this, saying: If you do what is good, you will not only avoid evil but you will have praise from the same. This is obvious when one considers the reason why authority is established. For it is established not only to keep us from evil conduct through fear of punishment but also to induce us to good conduct through rewards, as it says in 1 Peter: be subject to governors as sent by the emperor to punish those who do wrong and to praise those who do right (1 Pet 2:14). This is also true of evil rulers, whose unjust persecution ends in praise for those who endure it patiently: we call those happy who were steadfast (Jas 5:11).

Then when he says, therefore, he who resists, he draws the conclusion. For if the power of rulers is from God and nothing is from God without order, it follows that the order whereby the lower are subjected to the higher powers is from God. Therefore, he who acts against the order and resists the power, resists the ordinance of God: they have not rejected you, but they have rejected me (1 Sam 8:7); he who rejects you rejects me (Luke 10:16).

But to resist the divine order is contrary to the good of virtue. Hence, whoever resists power in anything that pertains to the order of this power acts against virtue.

Then when he says, those who resist, he shows that this subjection is not only virtuous but necessary. First, he states his proposition; second, he proves it, at for rulers.

He says, therefore: it has been stated that he who resists the power resists the ordinance of God, and this should be avoided as contrary to virtue. Yet there are many who have no love for virtue and who do not detest things contrary to virtue. Such persons must be compelled to avoid evil by punishments. In regard to this he says: they who resist the divine ordinance incur to themselves damnation for acting against the order of authority.

This can be understood in one way as referring to eternal damnation, which is incurred by those who refuse to be subject to authority in matters in which they should be subject. As an example of this, Dathan and Abiron, who resisted Moses and Aaron, were swallowed up by the earth, as it says in Numbers (Num 16:20).

In another way it can be understood as referring to the punishments imposed by the authorities themselves: the dread wrath of a king is like the growling of a lion; he who provokes him to anger forfeits his life (Prov 20:2).

But against this is the fact that the apostles and martyrs seem to have resisted rulers and authorities and did not receive damnation from God as a result but rather a reward. The answer is that the Apostle is now speaking of one who resists a lower power as established by God. But the divine order requires that a lower power not be obeyed in opposition to a higher one, as even in human affairs a governor is not obeyed against an emperor, nor a bailiff against a king. And every human power is set under the divine power, so that no human power should be obeyed against God, as it says in Acts: we must obey God rather than men (Acts 5:29).

Second, he explains how we should put on the armor of light, saying: but put on the Lord Jesus Christ in whom all the virtues were present most abundantly, according to Isaiah: seven women shall take hold of one man (Isa 4:1).

We put on Jesus Christ, first, by receiving the sacrament: all you who have been baptized in Christ have put on Christ (Gal 3:27).

Second, by imitation. Stripping yourselves of the old man with his deeds, and putting on the new (Col 3:9); and put on the new man, who according to God is created in justice and holiness of truth (Eph 4:24). For a person who imitates Christ is said to put on Christ, because, just as a man is covered by a garment and is seen under its color, so in one who imitates Christ the works of Christ appear. Therefore, we put on the armor of light, when we put on Christ.

Third, he explains what it is that we should walk honestly, as in the day, when he says: make not provision for the flesh in its concupiscences. For the beauty of becoming conduct lies in the fact that man does not prefer the flesh to the spirit but the spirit to the flesh: we are not debtors to the flesh that we should live according to the flesh (Rom 8:12).

It should be noted that he does not say make not provision for the flesh absolutely, because everyone is bound to take care of the body in order to sustain nature: no one hates his own flesh, but nourishes and cherishes it (Eph 5:29); but he adds, in its concupiscences, so that we do not follow the disorderly desires of the flesh: walk by the Spirit and do not gratify the desires of the flesh (Gal 5:16).

After showing how man should behave toward God by using the gifts of his grace, the Apostle now shows how man could comport himself toward his neighbor.

First, in regard to superiors; second, toward all, at owe no man any thing (Rom 13:8).

In regard to the first he does two things: first, he urges men to the subjection owed to superiors; second, to show the sign of subjection, at wherefore be subject of necessity. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he proposes his teaching; second, he assigns a reason, at for there is no power but from God; third, he draws the conclusion, at therefore.

In regard to the first it should be noted that in the early Church some believers said that they should not be subject to earthly powers on account of the freedom they received from Christ, since it says in John: if the Son makes you free, you will be free indeed (John 8:36). But the freedom granted by Christ is a freedom of the spirit, by which we are set free of sin and death, as was said above: the law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus has set me free from the law of sin and death (Rom 8:2). The flesh, however, remains subject to slavery, as was stated above (Rom 7:14). Therefore, the time when a man freed by Christ will not be liable to any subjection, either spiritual or carnal, will be when Christ delivers the kingdom to God the Father after destroying every rule and every authority and power (1 Cor 15:24).

In the meantime, as long as we live in the flesh, we are subject to temporal rulers; hence it says in Ephesians: servants, obey your masters in the flesh (Eph 6:5). And that is what the Apostle says here: let every soul be subject to the higher powers.

What he calls higher powers are men established in power, to whom we owe subjection according to the order of justice: be subject for the Lord's sake to every human institution, whether it be to the emperor as supreme or to governors as sent by him (1 Pet 2:13).

And he says indefinitely higher powers so that we may subject ourselves to them by reason of the sublimity of their office, even if they are wicked: be submissive to your masters, not only to the kind and gentle, but also to the overbearing (1 Pet 2:18).

The words every soul are to be taken as a synecdoche for every man, as we find in Genesis, that soul shall be destroyed from among his people (Gen 17:14). And he uses this figure of speech because we owe subjection to the authorities from the soul, i.e., from a pure will: not serving to the eye, as though pleasing men, but from the soul with a good will (Eph 6:6).

Then when he says, for there is no power, he presents the reason for this admonition: first, because subjection is honorable; second, because it is necessary, at he who resists. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he presents two principles; second, he concludes from them, at therefore, he who resists.

First, therefore, he speaks about the source of power, saying: there is no power except from God. For whatever is said in common of God and creatures, comes to creatures from God, as in the case of wisdom: all wisdom comes from God (Sir 1:1). But power is said of God and of men: God does not abandon the powers, since he is powerful (Job 35:5). Hence, it follows that all human power is from God: the most high rules the kingdom of men, and gives it to whom he will (Dan 4:17); you would have no power over me, unless it had been given you from above (John 19:11).

But a passage in Hosea seems to be against this: they made kings, but not through me. They set up princes, but without my knowledge (Hos 8:4). The answer is that royal power or the power associated with any other dignity can be considered from three aspects. First, in regard to the power itself, which is from God through whom kings reign (Prov 8:15). Second, in regard to the way in which power is obtained: from this aspect, power is from God sometimes, namely, when a person obtains it rightfully, as it says in Hebrews: one does not take the honor upon himself, but he is called by God, as Aaron was (Heb 5:4). But sometimes it is not from God but from a perverse desire of a man, who obtains power through ambition or some other unlawful manner: have we not by our own strength taken horns for ourselves? (Amos 6:13). Third, it can be considered in regard to its use, and then it is from God sometimes, as when a person observes the precepts of divine justice in using the power granted him: by me kings rule (Prov 8:15). But sometimes it is not from God, as when a person uses power given to him to act against divine justice: the kings of the earth set themselves, and the rulers take counsel together, against the Lord and his anointed (Ps 2:2).

The question arises whether the power to sin is from God. The answer is that the power by which one sins is from God. For it is the same power that is employed in sinning and in doing right: but that it is directed to good is from God; that it is directed to sin is due to a defect of the creature, inasmuch as it springs from nothingness.

Second, he states that those that exist have been instituted by God, the reason being that God made all things through his wisdom, for it says in a psalm: in wisdom have you made all (Ps 104:24). But it is the function of wisdom to dispose of things in order: she reaches mightily from one end of the earth to the other, and she orders all things well (Wis 8:1). Therefore, divine effects must be orderly: do you know the ordinances of the heavens? (Job 38:33). But God has established a twofold order in his effects: one, whereby all things are ordained to him: the Lord has made everything for himself (Prov 16:4); the other is that whereby divine effects are ordained one to another, as Deuteronomy says of the sun and the moon and the stars, that he made them to serve all nations (Deut 4:19).

Then when he says, therefore, one must be subject, he draws the main conclusion, saying: therefore, i.e., for the reasons given, one must be subject to rulers of necessity, namely, because this is necessary for salvation, or be subject voluntarily to the necessity whereby the ruler's power inclines you to do right of necessity; not only for wrath, i.e., to avoid vengeance, which pertains to the second reason, but also for the sake of preserving a good conscience, which pertains to the first reason, because he who resists authority resists what God has appointed: admonish them to be subject to princes and powers (Titus 3:1).

After showing how man should behave in a pious manner toward God by using his gifts properly and paying his neighbor the debts owed him, the Apostle now shows how he should act with probity in regard to himself. With respect to this he does two things: first, he proposes the suitability of the time; second, he exhorts them to virtuous works, at let us therefore cast off. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he mentions the suitability of the time; second, he assigns the reason, at for now our salvation is nearer; third, he employs a figure of speech, at the night is passed.

First, therefore, he says: we have stated what you should do. And you should do it not only for the reasons already given, but also because knowing this time, i.e., you ought to consider the nature of the present here, because as it says in Ecclesiastes: every matter has its time and way; even the stork in the heavens knows her times (Eccl 8:6); and the turtledove, swallow, and crane keep the time of their coming; but my people know not the ordinance of the Lord (Jer 8:70).

He shows what the time is suitable for, when he says: because it is now the hour for us to rise from sleep. This is not a reference to the sleep of nature, sometimes called death, as in 1 Thessalonians: we would not have you ignorant concerning those who are asleep (1 Thess 4:13), and sometimes the repose of the animal powers, as in John: if he is asleep, he will recover (John 11:12). Nor is it a reference to the sleep of grace, sometimes called the repose of eternal glory, as in a psalm: in peace I will lie down and sleep (Ps 4:9) and sometimes the rest of contemplation even in this life: I slept, but my heart was awake (Song 5:3). But it is a reference to the sleep of guilt, as in Ephesians: awake, O sleeper, and arise from the dead (Eph 5:14), or to the sleep of negligence, as in Proverbs: how long will you lie there, O sluggard? (Prov 6:9).

Therefore, it is full time now to wake from the sleep of guilt by doing penance: awake after you have rested (Ps 127:2) and from the sleep of negligence by taking care to act properly: arise, O princes, oil the shield! (Isa 21:5); let not the hour for rising sadden you (Sir 32:15).

Then when he says, for salvation, he assigns the reason for what he had said, saying: for now our salvation is nearer than when we believed. The Apostle is referring to the salvation of eternal life about which it is said: my salvation will be for ever (Isa 51:8).

Man is ordained to this salvation, first of all, by faith: he that believes and is baptized will be saved (Mark 16:16). But man gets closer and closer to it by good works and increased love: draw near to God and he will draw near to you (Jas 4:8).

This, therefore, is what the Apostle says: it is now the hour for us to rise from sleep, for now, when we have made progress by good works and increased love, our salvation, namely of eternal life, about which Isaiah says: my salvation will be forever (Isa 51:8), is nearer than when we believed, i.e., than when we originally received the faith.

This nearness can be understood in two ways. First, in regard to time, by which holy men, as they make progress in good works, draw closer to the end of this life, after which they receive their reward. The other is the nearness of preparation, because by increased love and good works performed, a man is prepared for that salvation: those who were ready went in with him to the marriage feast (Matt 25:10).

But inasmuch as the Church reads these words during Advent, they seem to refer to the salvation which Christ worked during his first coming. Accordingly, we can understand the Apostle speaking in place of all believers since the beginning of the world. For as the time of Christ's Incarnation drew near, and the predictions of the prophets grew in number, it could be said: our salvation, namely, Christ, is nearer than when we believed, i.e., when men in the very beginning started to believe in the future coming of Christ: soon my salvation will come and my deliverance be revealed (Isa 56:11).

They can also be taken to refer to the time of mercy, when one begins willing to depart from past sins. For at that time he is closer to his salvation than previously, when he had a dead faith: resist the devil and he will flee from you. Draw near to God and he will draw near to you (Jas 4:7).

Then when he says, for therefore also you pay tribute, he urges men to show the sign of their subjection to authority: first, he mentions the sign of subjection; second, he urges them to render the sign of subjection, at render therefore.

In regard to the first he does two things: first, he mentions the signs of subjection, saying: for therefore also you pay tribute, i.e., because you are subject, you should pay taxes as a sign of that subjection. Therefore, in a complaining way it says: the princess of the provinces was made tributary (Lam 1:1). They are in fact called contributions, for the very reason that the subjects contribute them to their lords.

Second, he assigns the reason, saying: for they are the ministers of God, serving, on behalf of God and the people, unto this purpose, i.e., to receiving tribute.

As if to say: everyone should make a living from his ministry, for it says in 1 Corinthians: who tends a flock without getting some of the milk? (1 Cor 4:7). And therefore, since our rulers minister to God in governing, they should receive taxes from the people as wages for their ministry and should not look upon it as a reward. For the special reward of a ruler is praise and honor, as the Philosopher says in book five of the Ethics. When this does not satisfy him, he becomes a tyrant. But this should not be understood as referring only to human praise or honor, because such a reward would be futile, but to divine praise and honor, which is bestowed on those who rule well: O monarchs over the people, honor wisdom, that you may reign forever (Wis 6:21).

Furthermore, they receive these taxes as sustenance, and rulers labor for the peace of all. Hence it is said: I urge that supplications be made for kings and all who are in high positions, that we may lead a quiet and peaceful life (1 Tim 2:1); pray for the life of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, that we may live under his shadow (Bar 1:11).

Clerics are free of this debt because of a privilege granted by rulers, which is in fact equitable by nature. Even among the gentiles those who were devoted to divine things were free from taxation. For we read in Genesis that Joseph subjected to Pharaoh the entire land of Egypt except the land of the priests, which had been given them by the king, and to whom also a certain allowance of food was given out of the public stores (Gen 47:20–22). And further down it says in the whole land of Egypt, the fifth part of the harvests was paid except for in the land of the priests, which was free from this condition.

But this is also equitable, because just as kings have care of the public good in temporal affairs, so God's ministers in spiritual matters. And so by ministering to God in spiritual matters, they are making a return to the king for his labor in procuring a peaceful life for them.

But it should be noted that although he says that taxes are owed to rulers as a wage for their labors, rulers can sin in two ways by accepting taxes. First, if they do not procure the people's welfare but are intent only on seizing their goods. Hence it says in Ezekiel: you eat the fat, you clothe yourselves with the wool, you slaughter the fatlings, but you do not feed the sheep (Ezek 34:3). Second, if they violently take more than the law permits and more than the people can bear. Hence it says in Micah: hear, you heads of Jacob and rulers of the house of Israel! Is it not you who tear the skin from my people, and their flesh from their bones? (Mic 3:1).

Then when he says, the love of our neighbor works no evil, he clarifies his proposition with the following syllogism: One who loves his neighbor does no evil to him. But the aim of every precept of the law is abstention from evil. Therefore, one who loves his neighbor fulfills the law. That love of neighbor does no evil is gathered from 1 Corinthians: love does not work injury (1 Cor 13:4).

No matter how evil is taken here, whether for evil acts or omissions, it could refer not only to negative precepts but also to affirmative. But inasmuch as love of neighbor includes love of God, it is understood that love of neighbor excludes evil both against one's neighbor and against God. Thus, even the precepts of the first tablet are included.

Finally, he draws the conclusion mainly intended, saying: therefore, love is the fulfillment of the law, i.e., the law is fulfilled and made perfect by love. My abode is in the full assembly of the saints (Sir 14:16); above all these put on love, which binds everything together in perfect harmony (Col 3:14).

Third, he urges them to use the virtues and make progress when he says: let us walk honestly, as in the day. For these two things seem suited to the day: first, becoming conduct, for in the day everyone tries to present himself becomingly before others. But not so in the night. Hence, it says in 1 Thessalonians: for those who sleep, sleep at night, and those who get drunk, get drunk at night. But since we belong to the day, let us be sober (1 Thess 5:7). Hence it says in 1 Corinthians: let all things be done decently and in order (1 Cor 14:40).

Second, man walks in the day, not at night; hence it says in John: if anyone walks in the night, he stumbles (John 11:10). Therefore, because it is day, we should walk, i.e., advance from good to better: walk while you have the light (John 12:35).

Then when he says, not in rioting, he explains what he had said. First, he explains how the works of darkness are to be cast off. These are sinful works, some of which he mentions. First, he mentions those which pertain to the corruption of the concupiscible appetite, whose corruption is intemperance in regard to pleasures of touch and to food. First, therefore, he excludes intemperate use of food when he says: not in rioting: be not among wine bibbers or among gluttonous eaters of meat (Prov 23:20). This, of course, can be a mortal sin from the fact that according to the law one is condemned to death for this sin. For it is said of a stubborn son: this our son is stubborn and rebellious: he is a glutton and drunkard. Then they shall stone him to death with stones (Deut 21:22).

One is said to pass the time in reveling, not if he eats with the magnificence that accords with his state, as King Ahasuerus commanded a splendid banquet to be prepared in honor of Esther, when she was made queen (Esth 2:18), but when he does this beyond the limits of his state, and especially if his main interest centers on this, as those about whom it is said: such persons do not serve our Lord Jesus Christ, but their own belly (Rom 16:18); their god is their belly (Phil 3:19).

Second, he excludes intemperance in drink, when he adds: and drunkenness, which refers to excessive drinking, which places a man outside the bounds of reason: wine created to make men glad, not drunk (Sir 31:27).

It should be noted that drunkenness is a mortal sin by its genus, namely when a person gets drunk on purpose, because he seems to prefer the pleasure of wine to the full use of reason. Hence it says in Isaiah: woe to those who are heroes at drinking wine, and valiant men in mixing strong drink (Isa 5:22). But if one gets drunk unintentionally, for example, because he was not aware of the strength of the wine or because he did not suspect he would get drunk on such wine, it is not a mortal sin, because he did not get drunk on purpose but accidentally. However, this cannot happen with persons who get drunk frequently. Hence, Augustine says in a sermon on Purgatory that drunkenness is a mortal sin, if it is a frequent occurrence. The Apostle thus significantly uses the plural number: not in riotings and drunkenness.

Third, he excludes intemperance in regard to bodily rest when he says: not in chambering, i.e., not in excessive sleep, which he fittingly forbids after rioting and drunkenness, because it follows from them. Furthermore, there can be mortal sin in this, when for the sake of bodily rest and sleep, a person neglects what he ought to do and is inclined to commit evil deeds: woe to those who devise wickedness and work evil upon their beds! (Mic 2:1).

The Apostle's words can also refer to the trappings of lust. Hence the harlot is quoted as saying: I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon (Prov 7:17). Because you went up to your father's bed, and did defile his couch (Gen 49:4).

Therefore, fourth, he fittingly excludes intemperance in regard to sex when he says: and impurities, i.e., venereal actions which are called shameful, because they do not avoid what is especially shameful and worthy of confusion: both because all pleasures of touch, gluttony and lust are common to us and brutes, so that one who pursues them inordinately becomes bestial. Do not become like the horse and the mule, who have no understanding (Ps 31:9). And because it is especially in venereal acts that man's reason is totally absorbed by pleasure to such an extent that he cannot understand, as the Philosopher says in the Ethics. Hence it says in Hosea: harlotry and drunkenness and wine take away the understanding (Hos 4:11); they did not repent over their licentiousness and fornication and uncleanness (Rev 9:21).

Then he excludes those sins which pertain to the corruption of the irascible appetite when he says: not in contention. Contention, as Ambrose says, is an attack on the truth, performed with confident shouting. It is also possible that these words forbid all quarreling, not only in words but also in deeds, which very frequently begin with words: it is an honor for a man to keep aloof from strife (Prov 20:3).

Contention generally arises from envy; therefore he adds: and envy. Hence it says in James: where jealousy and selfish ambitions exist, there will be disorder and every vile practice (Jas 3:16).

Then when he says for you shall not commit adultery, he proves his proposition: first, by induction; second, by means of a syllogism, at the love of our neighbor.

In regard to the first he proceeds inductively by enumerating certain precepts which fulfill the love of neighbor. And because the three precepts of the first tablet are more directly ordained to the love of God, he does not mention them, although they, too, are fulfilled in the love of neighbor, insofar as the love of God is included in the love of neighbor. But he enumerates the commands of the second tablet, omitting only the affirmative precept about honor to parents. By this it is understood that we should pay to all whatever we owe.

He lists the negative precepts, which forbid a person to do evil to his neighbor. And this for two reasons. First, because the negative precepts are more universal both as to time and as to persons. As to time, because the negative precepts oblige always and at every moment. For there is no time when one may steal or commit adultery. Affirmative precepts, on the other hand, oblige always but not at every moment, but at certain times and places: for a man is not obliged to honor his parents every minute of the day, but at certain times and places. Negative precepts are also more universal as to persons, because no man may be harmed, whereas we are not capable of each serving every other man.

Second, because they are more obviously observed by love of neighbor than are the affirmative. For a person who loves another, rather refrains from harming him than gives him benefits, which he is sometimes unable to give.

But a person does injury to his neighbor in three ways: by action, by word, and by desire.

He does injury by action in three ways: first, against the neighbor's person, and this is forbidden when he says: you shall not kill. This also forbids any injury against the neighbor's person: no murderer has eternal life abiding in him (1 John 3:15).

Second, against a person's wife; and this is forbidden when he says: you shall not commit adultery. This also forbids fornication and any unlawful use of the genital organs: God will judge fornicators and adulterers (Heb 13:4).

Third, against one's external goods, and this is forbidden when he says: you shall not steal. This also forbids any unjust taking of what belongs to another, either by force or by deceit: everyone who steals will be judged (Zech 5:3).

Injury committed by word against one's neighbor is forbidden when he says: you shall not bear false witness. This is forbidden not only in court cases but also outside, whether in the form of detraction or of insults: the false witness will not go unpunished, and one who speaks lies will not escape (Prov 19:5).

Injury committed only by desire against one's neighbor is forbidden when he says: you shall not covet your neighbor's good; and this also forbids coveting another's wife: for I would not have known covetousness to be a sin, if the law had not said: you shall not covet (Rom 7:7).

These commandments are set forth in Exodus 20:17 et seq. Having listed a number of precepts, he combines all others in one general precept, saying: and if there be any other commandment, affirmative or negative, referring to God or to neighbor, it is comprised, i.e., fulfilled, in this word: you shall love your neighbor as yourself. This is said in Leviticus, where our text has: you shall love your friend as yourself (Lev 19:18).

When he says, your neighbor, the reference is to all men and also the good angels, as Augustine says. For a neighbor is anyone who shows mercy to another, as it says in Luke: which of these three, do you think, proved neighbor to the man who fell among robbers? He said: the one who showed mercy to him (Luke 10:36). And because a neighbor is neighbor to a neighbor, the consequence is that even a person shown mercy by another is said to be his neighbor. But the good angels show mercy to us; and we should show mercy to all men and receive it from them, when necessary. Hence it is clear that the good angels and all men are our neighbors, because the happiness toward which we are tending is already theirs, or they are tending toward it with us.

From this reason it is clear that devils are not our neighbors and that we are not commanded to love them, because they are entirely excluded from the love of God and are not included in the list of neighbors but of enemies.

The phrase, as yourself, does not refer to equality of love, as though a person were bound to love his neighbor as much as himself. For this would be against the ordering of charity, by which a person is obliged to take more care of his own salvation than that of others: he put love in order in me (Song 2:4). It refers, rather to a similarity of love, namely, that we should love our neighbor similarly as ourselves.

And this in three ways: first, as to the end of love, namely, that we love ourselves and our neighbor for the sake of God. Second, as to the form of love, namely, just as a person loves himself as willing good for himself, so he should love his neighbor by willing good things for him. But one who loves his neighbor in order to acquire some utility or love from him does not will good for his neighbor but wants to obtain a good for himself from his neighbor. This is the way a man is said to love irrational creatures, such as wine or a horse, namely, to use them. Third, as to the effect of love, namely, that he relieve the need of his neighbor, as he relieves his own; and that he do nothing unlawful out of love for his neighbor any more than he does out of love for himself.

Having shown how believers should observe justice toward superiors, the Apostle now shows how they should behave toward everyone generally. In regard to this he does two things: first, he states his intention; second, he gives a reason, at for he that loves.

First, therefore, he says: it has been stated that you must pay your debts to all, not in part but entirely. And that is what he says: owe no one anything. As if to say: you should pay all you owe to everyone so completely that nothing still owing remains.

And this for two reasons: first, because sin is committed in delaying to pay, as long as a person unjustly holds back what belongs to another. Hence it says in Leviticus: the wages of a hired servant shall not remain with you all night until the morning (Lev 19:13). And the same is true of other debts.

Second, because as long as a person owes, he is in a certain sense a slave and is obligated to the one to whom he owes: the borrower is the slave of the lender (Prov 22:7).

But there are some debts from which a man can never absolve himself. This happens in two ways: in one way on account of the excellence of the benefit for which equal payment cannot be made, as the Philosopher says of honor owed to God or parents, as it says in a psalm: what shall I render to the Lord for all his bounty to me? (Ps 116:12). In another way on account of the debt's cause, which always remains; or even because what is paid is never terminated but always increases as one pays.

For these reasons the debt of fraternal love is paid in such a way that it is always owing. First, because we owe love to our neighbor on account of God, whom we can never recompense sufficiently. For it is said: this commandment we have from him, that he who loves God should love his brother also (1 John 4:2). Second, because the cause of love always remains, namely, being alike in nature and in grace: every animal loves its like, and every person his neighbor (Sir 13:15). Third, because love does not diminish but grows by loving: it is my prayer that your love may abound more and more (Phil 1:9).

Therefore, he says: except to love one another, because the debt of love is paid once in such a way that it always remains under the debt of a precept: this is my commandment, that you love one another (John 15:12).

Then when he says, he who loves his neighbor, he assigns the reason for the statement that we are never released from the debt of love, namely, because the whole fulfillment of the law consists in love. Hence he does three things in regard to this: first, he states his proposition; second, he clarifies it, at for you shall not commit adultery; third, he draws the conclusion intended, at love therefore is the fulfillment of the law.

First, therefore, he says: the reason why we cannot expect to free ourselves from the debt of love, as we do from other debts, is that for he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law, i.e., the whole fulfillment of the law depends on love of neighbor.

But this does not seem to be true. For it says in 1 Timothy: the end of the precept is love (1 Tim 1:5). For a thing is made perfect when it attains its end; therefore, the whole perfection of the law consists in love. But love has two acts, namely, the love of God and the love of neighbor; hence the Lord says in Matthew that the whole law and the prophets depend on the two precepts of love: one of which is concerned with the love of God and the other with the love of neighbor (Matt 22:40). Therefore, it does not seem that one who loves his neighbor fulfills the whole law.

The answer is that love of neighbor pertains to love and fulfills the law, when it is a love by which the neighbor is loved for God. So the love of God is included in the love of neighbor, just as the cause is included in its effect. For it says in 1 John: this commandment we have from him, that he who loves God should love his brother also (1 John 4:21). Conversely, love of neighbor is included in love of God, as the effect in its cause; hence it says in the same place: if anyone says, 'I love God,' and hates his brother, he is a liar.

That is why in Sacred Scripture sometimes mention is made only of the love of God, as though it is enough for salvation, as in Deuteronomy: and now, Israel, what does the Lord your God require of you, but to fear the Lord your God, to walk in all his ways, and to love him (Deut 10:12); and sometimes mention is made of love of neighbor: this is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you (John 15:12).

Then when he says, the night is passed, but the day is at hand, he uses a figure of speech to clarify his proposition. The import is that the entire time of the present life is compared to night on account of the darkness of ignorance with which the present life is encumbered. We are swallowed up in darkness (Job 33:4). Isaiah says of this night: my soul yearns for you in the night (Isa 26:9).

But the state of future happiness is compared to day on account of God's splendor with which the saints are enlightened: the sun shall be no more your light by day, nor for brightness shall the moon give light to you by night, but the Lord will be your everlasting light (Isa 60:19). This day is referred to in a psalm: this is the day which the Lord has made; let us rejoice and be glad in it (Ps 118:24).

It can also be understood that the state of guilt is being compared to night on account of the darkness of guilt. About this darkness a psalm says: they have neither knowledge nor understanding; they walk about in darkness (Ps 82:5). About this night Wisdom says: over those men alone heavy night was spread, an image of the darkness that was destined to receive them (Wis 17:21).

But the state of grace is called day on account of the light of spiritual understanding which the just have, but the wicked lack: light dawns for the righteous (Ps 97:11); the light of justice did not shine on us (Wis 5:6).

Or it can be understood that the time before Christ's Incarnation is being compared to night, because it was not yet clear but wrapped in darkness: we have the prophetic word made more sure. You will do well to pay attention to this as to a lamp shining in a dark place (2 Pet 1:19). About this night it says in Isaiah: watchman, what of the night? (Isa 21:11). Hence, just as shadows appear at night, so during that time the practices of the law were in vogue, but these were only a shadow of what is to come (Col 2:17).

But the time after Christ's Incarnation is compared to day on account of the power of the spiritual sun in the world: but for you who fear my name, the sun of justice shall shine (Mal 4:2). Hence the Lord says: I must work the works of him who sent me, while it is day (John 9:4); then he adds: as long as I am in the world, I am the light of the world.

The saying, the night is passed, can be taken for any of the three nights mentioned. For a large part of the life span of those to whom he was writing was already far gone; the night of guilt had passed, as had the period of the law before Christ.

But it seems that the saying, but the day is at hand, must be understood as referring to the day of future glory, which was at hand for the believers in Christ to whom he was writing, although it had not yet arrived for them.

In keeping with the foregoing explanation, the time of Christ's grace, although it had already arrived as regards the passage of time, is nonetheless described as drawing near through faith and devotion; just as it also says in Philippians: the Lord is near (Phil 4:5), and in a psalm: the Lord is near to all who call upon him (Ps 145:18).

It can also apply to those who begin to repent of their sins; for such persons the day of grace is at hand.

Then when he says, let us, therefore, cast off, he concludes the exhortation to an honorable life. First he gives the exhortation; second, he clarifies it, at not in rioting. In regard to an honorable life he touches on three things.

First, the removal of vices, as he concludes: If the night is passed, let us cast off the works of darkness, because, as it says in Ecclesiastes: every matter has its time and way (Eccl 8:6). Hence, when the night is gone, the deeds of the night should cease.

Here the works of sin are called works of darkness: first, because in themselves they lack the light of reason with which man's works should be illumined: the wise man has eyes in his head, but the fool walks in darkness (Eccl 2:14); second, they are performed in the dark: the eye of the adulterer waits for the twilight (Job 24:15); third, because by them a person is brought to darkness: cast them into the darkness outside (Matt 22:13).

Second, he summons them to put on the virtues. As if to say: since the day is at hand, be dressed as suits the day and put on the armor of light, i.e., the virtues, which are called armor because they protect us: put on the whole armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil (Eph 6:11).

They are called the armor of light, because they are decorated and perfected by the light of reason; hence it says in Proverbs: the path of the just is like the light of dawn (Prov 4:18); and because they are tested by light: he who does what is true comes to the light (John 3:2); and because others are enlightened by virtuous acts: so let your light shine before men (Matt 5:16).

Then when he says, render therefore, he admonishes them to render the above-mentioned sign of subjection.

First, in general, saying: Inasmuch as taxes are owed to rulers, as to God's ministers, render therefore to all men their dues. From this it is clear that justice requires subjects to render rulers their due: to the king was brought one who owed him ten thousand talents (Matt 18:24); render, therefore, to Caesar the things that are Caesar's and to God the things that are God's (Matt 22:21).

Second, he specifies debts that are paid publicly, saying: tribute, to whom tribute is due, for these are paid to the ruler that he might govern the country in peace and quiet: he saw that a resting place was good, and that the land was pleasant (Gen 49:15). Custom to whom custom is due; this is paid to the ruler in certain places as tolls, for the repair of roads and for safe travel. Or they are the expenses incurred when the ruler travels through his country.

Second, he sets out those things which should be rendered interiorly. Here it should be noted that a ruler is owed fear and honor: fear, because he is lord and uses his power to prevent evil men from doing evil: if I am the Lord, where is my fear? (Mal 1:6). Hence he says: fear to whom fear is due: my son, fear the Lord and the king (Prov 24:21). But inasmuch as the ruler is like a father providing benefits, he deserves praise and honor: if I am a father, where is my honor? (Mal 1:6). Therefore, he adds: honor to whom honor is due: honor the king (1 Pet 2:17). The opposite view is expressed in Leviticus: you shall not defer to the powerful (Lev 19:5).

But this should be interpreted as forbidding a person to deviate from justice to benefit the powerful. Hence it continues: but in justice shall you judge your neighbor.

The priest made a short speech; he did not utter any priestly dogmas (whatever they are), he uttered platitudes. In such circumstances platitudes are the only possible things to say; because they are true. He began by saying that he supposed a large number of them would be uncommonly glad not to go. They seemed to assent to this particular priestly dogma with even more than their alleged superstitious credulity. He said that war was hateful, and that we all hated it; but that "in all things reasonable" the law of one's own commonwealth was the voice of God. He spoke about Joan of Arc; and how she had managed to be a bold and successful soldier while still preserving her virtue and practising her religion; then he gave them each a little paper book. To which they replied (after a brief interval for reflection):

Pongprongperesklang pour la patrie, Tambraugtararronc pour la patrie.

which I feel sure was the best and most pointed reply.

My contention is that this doctrine, merciful though it appears, really means that each one of us, from the moment he breaks the law, is deprived of the rights of a human being.

The reason is this. The Humanitarian theory removes from Punishment the concept of Desert. But the concept of Desert is the only connecting link between punishment and justice. It is only as deserved or undeserved that a sentence can be just or unjust. I do not here contend that the question 'Is it deserved?' is the only one we can reasonably ask about a punishment. We may very properly ask whether it is likely to deter others and to reform the criminal. But neither of these two last questions is a question about justice. There is no sense in talking about a 'just deterrent' or a 'just cure'. We demand of a deterrent not whether it is just but whether it will deter. We demand of a cure not whether it is just but whether it succeeds. Thus when we cease to consider what the criminal deserves and consider only what will cure him or deter others, we have tacitly removed him from the sphere of justice altogether; instead of a person, a subject of rights, we now have a mere object, a patient, a 'case'.

According to the classical political theory of this country we surrendered our right of self-protection to the State on condition that the State would protect us. Roughly, you promised not to stab your daughter's murderer on the understanding that the State would catch him and hang him. Of course this was never true as a historical account of the genesis of the State. The power of the group over the individual is by nature unlimited and the individual submits because he has to. The State, under favourable conditions (they have ceased), by defining that power, limits it and gives the individual a little freedom.

But the classical theory morally grounds our obligation to civil obedience; explains why it is right (as well as unavoidable) to pay taxes, why it is wrong (as well as dangerous) to stab your daughter's murderer. At present the very uncomfortable position is this: the State protects us less because it is unwilling to protect us against criminals at home and manifestly grows less and less able to protect us against foreign enemies. At the same time it demands from us more and more. We seldom had fewer rights and liberties nor more burdens: and we get less security in return. While our obligations increase their moral ground is taken away.

Now it is certain, in some sense, that 'no duty of obedience can justify a sin', as Mr Mascall says. Granted that capital punishment is compatible with Christianity, a Christian may lawfully be a hangman; but he must not hang a man whom he knows to be innocent. But will anyone interpret this to mean that the hangman has the same duty of investigating the prisoner's guilt which the judge has? If so, no executive can work and no Christian state is possible; which is absurd. I conclude that the hangman has done his duty if he has done his share of the general duty, resting upon all citizens alike, to ensure, so far as in him lies, that we have an honest judicial system; if, in spite of this, and unknowingly, he hangs an innocent man, then a sin has been committed, but not by him.

Other correspondents have pointed out that a theory of punishment which is purely exemplary or purely reformatory, or both, is shockingly immoral. Only the concept of desert connects punishment with morality at all. If deterrence is all that matters, the execution of an innocent man, provided the public think him guilty, would be fully justified. If reformation alone is in question, then there is nothing against painful and compulsory reform for all our defects, and a Government which believes Christianity to be a neurosis will have a perfectly good right to hand us all over to their straighteners for 'cure' to-morrow.

This analogy suggests to me that it must be absurd to give to the private citizen the same right and duty of deciding the justice of a given war which rests on governments; and I submit that the rules for determining what wars are just were originally rules for the guidance of princes, not subjects. This does not mean that private persons must obey governments commanding them to do what they know is sin; but perhaps it does mean (I write it with some reluctance) that the ultimate decision as to what the situation at a given moment is in the highly complex field of international affairs is one which must be delegated. No doubt we must make every effort which the constitution allows to ensure a good government and to influence public opinion; but in the long run, the nation, as a nation, must act, and it can act only through its government. (It must be remembered that there are risks in both directions: if war is ever lawful, then peace is sometimes sinful.)