1 Timothy 4

Now it becomes you also not to treat your bishop too familiarly on account of his youth, but to yield him all reverence, having respect to the power of God the Father, as I have known even holy presbyters do, not judging rashly, from the manifest youthful appearance [of their bishop], but as being themselves prudent in God, submitting to him, or rather not to him, but to the Father of Jesus Christ, the bishop of us all. It is therefore fitting that you should, after no hypocritical fashion, obey [your bishop], in honour of Him who has wired us [so to do], since he that does not so deceives not [by such conduct] the bishop that is visible, but seeks to mock Him that is invisible. And all such conduct has reference not to man, but to God, who knows all secrets.

Now it becomes you also not to despise the age of your bishop, but to yield him all reverence, according to the will of God the Father, as I have known even holy presbyters do, not having regard to the manifest youth [of their bishop], but to his knowledge in God; inasmuch as "not the ancient are [necessarily] wise, nor do the aged understand prudence; but there is a spirit in men." For Daniel the wise, at twelve years of age, became possessed of the divine Spirit, and convicted the elders, who in vain carried their grey hairs, of being false accusers, and of lusting after the beauty of another man's wife. Samuel also, when he was but a little child, reproved Eli, who was ninety years old, for giving honour to his sons rather than to God. In like manner, Jeremiah also received this message from God, "Say not, I am a child." Solomon too, and Josiah, [exemplified the same thing.] The former, being made king at twelve years of age, gave that terrible and difficult judgment in the case of the two women concerning their children. The latter, coming to the throne when eight years old cast down the altars and temples [of the idols], and burned down the groves, for they were dedicated to demons, and not to God. And he slew the false priests, as the corrupters and deceivers of men, and not the worshippers of the Deity. Wherefore youth is not to be despised when it is devoted to God. But he is to be despised who is of a wicked mind, although he be old, and full of wicked days. Timothy the Christ-bearer was young, but hear what his teacher writes to him: "Let no man despise thy youth, but be thou an example of the believers in word and in conduct." It is becoming, therefore, that ye also should be obedient to your bishop, and contradict him in nothing; for it is a fearful thing to contradict any such person. For no one does [by such conduct] deceive him that is visible, but does [in reality] seek to mock Him that is invisible, who, however, cannot be mocked by any one. And every such act has respect not to man, but to God. For God says to Samuel, "They have not mocked thee, but Me." And Moses declares, "For their murmuring is not against us, but against the Lord God." No one of those has, [in fact, ] remained unpunished, who rose up against their superiors. For Dathan and Abiram did not speak against the law, but against Moses, and were cast down alive into Hades. Korah also, and the two hundred and fifty who conspired with him against Aaron, were destroyed by fire. Absalom, again, who had slain his brother, became suspended on a tree, and had his evil-designing heart thrust through with darts. In like manner was Abeddadan beheaded for the same reason. Uzziah, when he presumed to oppose the priests and the priesthood, was smitten with leprosy. Saul also was dishonoured, because he did not wait for Samuel the high priest. It behoves you, therefore, also to reverence your superiors.

They that are carnal cannot do those things which are spiritual, nor they that are spiritual the things which are carnal; even as faith cannot do the works of unbelief, nor unbelief the works of faith. But ye, being full of the Holy Spirit, do nothing according to the flesh, but all things according to the Spirit. Ye are complete in Christ Jesus, "who is the Saviour of all men, specially of them that believe."

I think not that I counted trivial counsel concerning continence; following it, a man will not repent thereof, but will save both himself and me who counselled. [1 Timothy 4:16] For it is no small reward to turn back a wandering and perishing soul for its salvation. [James 5:19-25]

There existed, long before this time, certain men more ancient than all those who are esteemed philosophers, both righteous and beloved by God, who spoke by the Divine Spirit, and foretold events which would take place, and which are now taking place. They are called prophets. These alone both saw and announced the truth to men, neither reverencing nor fearing any man, not influenced by a desire for glory, but speaking those things alone which they saw and which they heard, being filled with the Holy Spirit. Their writings are still extant, and he who has read them is very much helped in his knowledge of the beginning and end of things, and of those matters which the philosopher ought to know, provided he has believed them. For they did not use demonstration in their treatises, seeing that they were witnesses to the truth above all demonstration, and worthy of belief; and those events which have happened, and those which are happening, compel you to assent to the utterances made by them, although, indeed, they were entitled to credit on account of the miracles which they performed, since they both glorified the Creator, the God and Father of all things, and proclaimed His Son, the Christ [sent] by Him: which, indeed, the false prophets, who are filled with the lying unclean spirit, neither have done nor do, but venture to work certain wonderful deeds for the purpose of astonishing men, and glorify the spirits and demons of error.

And since the demons assist the most wicked, the Saviour came for the destruction of evil men and of the demons, but for the salvation of the good. They declare also, that marriage and generation are from Satan. Many of those, too, who belong to his school, abstain from animal food, and draw away multitudes by a reigned temperance of this kind.

Such are the words and deeds by which, in our own district of the Rhone, they have deluded many women, who have their consciences seared as with a hot iron. Some of them, indeed, make a public confession of their sins; but others of them are ashamed to do this, and in a tacit kind of way, despairing of [attaining to] the life of God, have, some of them, apostatized altogether; while others hesitate between the two courses, and incur that which is implied in the proverb, "neither without nor within;" possessing this as the fruit from the seed of the children of knowledge.

It follows that celibacy is not particularly praiseworthy unless it arises through love of God. The blessed Paul says of those who show a distaste for marriage, "In the last days people will abandon the faith, attaching themselves to deceitful spirits and the teachings of demonic powers that they should abstain from food, at the same time forbidding marriage." Again he says, "Do not let anyone disqualify you in forced piety of self-mortification and severity to the body." Well? Did not the righteous of past days share gratefully in God's creation? Some of them married and produced children without loss of self-control.

"This is the love of God, that we keep His commandments." And again, to him who desires to become a Gnostic, it is written, "But be thou an example of the believers, in word, in conversation, in love, in faith, in purity." For perfection in faith differs, I think, from ordinary faith.

And no doubt of such people it is reasonable when, "the Spirit says expressly that in the last times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to spirits of error and the teaching inspired by daemons, through hypocritical sophists who are seated in conscience and forbid marriage, and demand abstinence from foods which God created to be eaten with thanksgiving by believers who know the truth. Everything created by God is good, and none is to be rejected but accepted with thanksgiving. For it is sanctified by the Word of God and by prayer." It necessarily follows, then, that it is wrong to forbid marriage and indeed eating meat or drinking wine. For it is written: "It is good to eat no meat and to drink no wine" if it causes offence to do so, and that it is "good to remain as I am." But both he who eats with thanksgiving and he who does not eat, who also offers thanksgiving and has a continent enjoyment, should live in accordance with reason.

And no doubt of such people it is reasonable when, "the Spirit says expressly that in the last times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to spirits of error and the teaching inspired by daemons, through hypocritical sophists who are seated in conscience and forbid marriage, and demand abstinence from foods which God created to be eaten with thanksgiving by believers who know the truth. Everything created by God is good, and none is to be rejected but accepted with thanksgiving. For it is sanctified by the Word of God and by prayer." It necessarily follows, then, that it is wrong to forbid marriage and indeed eating meat or drinking wine.

And to speak comprehensively, all benefit appertaining to life, in its highest reason, proceeding from the Sovereign God, the Father who is over all, is consummated by the Son, who also on this account "is the Saviour of all men," says the apostle, "but especially of those who believe." But in respect of its immediate reason, it is from those next to each, in accordance with the command and injunction of Him who is nearest the First Cause, that is, the Lord.

The apostle set a brand upon those who were inclined entirely to forbid marriage and who were determined to lay an interdict on meats which God has created. We, however, do not do away with marriage if we disavow its repetition, nor do we condemn meats if we fast oftener than others. It is one thing to regulate but another thing to do away with altogether.

Thus runs Hebion's heresy. Such also as "forbid to marry" he reproaches in his instructions to Timothy. Now, this is the teaching of Marcion and his follower Apelles.

Now, whence comes this halving of salvation, if not from a failure of goodness? What could have been a better proof of a perfect goodness, than the recovery of the whole man to salvation? Totally damned by the Creator, he should have been totally restored by the most merciful god. I rather think that by Marcion's rule the body is baptized, is deprived of marriage, is cruelly tortured in confession.

Xerophagies, however, (they consider) the novel name of a studied duty, and very much akin to heathenish superstition, like the abstemious rigours which purify an Apis, an Isis, and a Magna Mater, by a restriction laid upon certain kinds of food; whereas faith, free in Christ, owes no abstinence from particular meats to the Jewish Law even, admitted as it has been by the apostle once for all to the whole range of the meat-market -(the apostle, I say), that detester of such as, in like manner as they prohibit marrying, so bid us abstain from meats created by God. And accordingly (they think) us to have been even then prenoted as "in the latest times departing from the faith, giving heed to spirits which seduce the world, having a conscience inburnt with doctrines of liars.

If he is making prayer to the Lord, he is near heaven. If he is bending over the Scriptures, he is "wholly in them." If he is singing a psalm, he satisfies himself.

These are "the doctrines" of men and "of demons" that produce for itching ears of the spirit this world's wisdom. This is what the Lord called "foolishness." God "chose the foolish things of the world" to confound even philosophy itself. For philosophy is the material of the world's wisdom, the rash interpreter of the nature and the providence (dispensations) of God.

The character of the times in which we live is such as to call forth from us even this admonition, that we ought not to be astonished at the heresies (which abound) neither ought their existence to surprise us, for it was foretold that they should come to pass; nor the fact that they subvert the faith of some, for their final cause is, by affording a trial to faith, to give it also the opportunity of being "approved.

What harshness, therefore, is here on our part, if we renounce (communion with) such as do not the will of God? What heresy, if we judge second marriage, as being unlawful, akin to adultery? For what is adultery but unlawful marriage? The apostle sets a brand upon those who were wont entirely to forbid marriage, who were wont at the same time to lay an interdict on meats which God has created. We, however, no more do away with marriage if we abjure its repetition, than we reprobate meats if we fast oftener (than others).

And accordingly (they think) us to have been even then prenoted as "in the latest times departing from the faith, giving heed to spirits which seduce the world, having a conscience inburnt with doctrines of liars." (Inburnt?) With what fires, prithee? The fires, I ween, which lead us to repeated contracting of nuptials and daily cooking of dinners! Thus, too, they affirm that we share with the Galatians the piercing rebuke (of the apostle), as "observers of days, and of months, and of years.

If, then he shows plainly that even wives themselves are so to be had as if they be not had, on account of the straits of the times, what would be his sentiments about these vain appliances of theirs? Why, are there not many, withal, who so do, and seal themselves up to eunuchhood for the sake of the kingdom of God, spontaneously relinquishing a pleasure so honourable, and (as we know) permitted? Are there not some who prohibit to themselves (the use of) the very "creature of God," abstaining from wine and animal food, the enjoyments of which border upon no peril or solicitude; but they sacrifice to God the humility of their soul even in the chastened use of food? Sufficiently, therefore, have you, too, used your riches and your delicacies; sufficiently have you cut down the fruits of your dowries, before (receiving) the knowledge of saving disciplines.

"But," say they, "God is `good, 'and `most good, ' and `pitiful-hearted, 'and `a pitier, 'and `abundant in pitiful-heartedness, ' which He holds `dearer than all sacrifice, ' `not thinking the sinner's death of so much worth as his repentance', `a Saviour of all men, most of all of believers.' And so it will be becoming for `the sons of God' too to be `pitiful-hearted' and `peacemakers; ' `giving in their turn just as Christ withal hath given to us; ' `not judging, that we be not judged.

You forbid marriage, the procreation of children, (and) the abstaining from meats which God has created for participation by the faithful, and those that know the truth.
, and each receives from these a sufficient portion. No one, however, tastes these before the priest utters a blessing,

Others, however, styling themselves Encratites, acknowledge some things concerning God and Christ consistently with the church. In respect, however, of their ascetic mode of life, they pass their days inflated with pride. They suppose that by their choice of foods they magnify themselves. They abstain from animal food, [and] being water drinkers, forbid to marry, devoting themselves during the remainder of life to habits of asceticism. But persons of this description are viewed more as cynics than as Christians, inasmuch as they do not attend to the words spoken against them by the apostle Paul.

Others, however, styling themselves Encratites, acknowledge some things concerning God and Christ in like manner with the Church. In respect, however, of their mode of life, they pass their days inflated with pride. They suppose, that by meats they magnify themselves, while abstaining from animal food, (and) being water-drinkers, and forbidding to marry, and devoting themselves during the remainder of life to habits of asceticism. But persons of this description are estimated Cynics rather than Christians, inasmuch as they do not attend unto the words spoken against them through the Apostle Paul. Now he, predicting the novelties that were to be hereafter introduced ineffectually by certain (heretics), made a statement thus: "The Spirit speaketh expressly, In the latter times certain will depart from sound doctrine, giving heed to seducing spirits and doctrines of devils, uttering falsehoods in hypocrisy, having their own conscience seared with a hot iron, forbidding to marry, to abstain from meats, which God has created to be partaken of with thanksgiving by the faithful, and those who know the truth; because every creature of God is good, and nothing to be rejected which is received with thanksgiving; for it is sanctified by the word of God and prayer." This voice, then, of the blessed Paul, is sufficient for the refutation of those who live in this manner, and plume themselves on being just; (and) for the purpose of proving that also, this (tenet of the Encratites) constitutes a heresy. But even though there have been denominated certain other heresies-I mean those of the Cainites, Ophites, or Noachites, and of others of this description-I have not deemed it requisite to explain the things said or done by these, test on this account they may consider themselves somebody, or deserving of consideration. Since, however, the statements concerning these appear to be sufficient, let us pass on to the cause of evils to all, (viz.,) the heresy of the Noetians. Now, after we have laid bare the root of this (heresy), and stigmatized openly the venom, as it were, lurking within it, let us seek to deter from an error of this description those who have been impelled into it by a violent spirit, as it were by a swollen torrent.

"And, not content with this wild opinion, they add to it and associate with it old women's fables:

The Savior then commanded, "What God has joined together, let not man put asunder." But man wishes to put asunder what God has joined together. He does this when, "falling away from the sound faith, he gives heed to seducing spirits and doctrines of demons, through the hypocrisy of men who speak lies, branded in their own conscience as with a hot iron, and by forbidding" them not only to commit fornication but even "to marry." In this way he dissolves even those who before had been joined together by the providence of God.

Do you still want me to show you what kind of fast it is appropriate for you to practice? Fast from every sin, take no food of malice, take no feasts of passion, do not burn with any wine of luxury. Fast from evil deeds, abstain from evil words, hold yourself from the worst evil thoughts. Do not touch the secret loaves of perverse doctrine. Do not desire the deceptive foods of philosophy which seduce you from truth. Such a fast pleases God. But "to abstain from the foods which God created to be received with thanksgiving by the faithful" and to do this with those who crucified Christ cannot be acceptable to God.… However, we do not say this that we may loosen the restraints of Christian abstinence.

Now "every scribe who has been made a disciple to the kingdom of heaven is like a man that is a householder who brings forth out of his treasury things new and old." Therefore, it clearly follows by "conversion of the proposition," as it is called, that every one who does not bring forth out of his treasury things new and old is not a scribe who has been made a disciple for the kingdom of heaven. We must endeavor, therefore, in every way to gather in our heart, "by giving heed to reading, to exhortation, to teaching" and by "meditating in the law of the Lord day and night." We must observe not only the new oracles of the Gospels and of the apostles and their revelation but also the old things in the law "which has the shadow of the good things to come" and in the prophets who prophesied in accordance with them.

Our reply to this is that he attributes to us statements which we do not make. For we both read and know that God "loves everything that exists and hates nothing that he has made; for he would never have made anything if he had hated it." … He is also called "Savior of all men, especially of those who believe," and his Christ is "a propitiation for our sins, but not for ours only, but also for the whole world." … But now, according to our preaching, Jesus who is called the Christ of God by a certain traditional usage in the Bible has come on behalf of sinners in all places, that they may forsake their sin and entrust themselves to God.

Let the church of God, therefore, in this spiritual way understand the births, in this way receive the procreations, in this way uphold the deeds of the fathers with a fitting and honorable interpretation and in this way not disgrace the words of the Holy Spirit with foolish rabbinic fables but reckon them to be full of honor, full of virtue and usefulness.

But if, further, he shall harass and provoke you with his insults, you must exercise against him the power of your dignity, by either deposing him or excommunicating him. For if the Apostle Paul, writing to Timothy, said, "Let no man despise thy youth"

Those who are too hasty, and give up even before midnight, we reprehend as remiss and intemperate, and as almost breaking off from their course in their precipitation, for it is a wise man's word, "That is not little in life which is within a little." And those who hold out and continue for a very long time, and persevere even on to the fourth watch, which is also the time at which our Saviour manifested Himself walking upon the sea to those who were then on the deep, we receive as noble and laborious disciples. On those, again, who pause and refresh themselves in the course as they are moved or as they are able, let us not press very hard: for all do not carry out the six days of fasting either equally or alike; but some pass even all the days as a fast, remaining without food through the whole; while others take but two, and others three, and others four, and others not even one.

Wherefore they have been excommunicated and anathematized by the Church. And indeed, although we grieve at the destruction of these men, especially that after having once learned the doctrine of the Church, they have now gone back; yet we do not wonder at it; for this very thing Hymenaeus and Philetus suffered, and before them Judas, who, though he followed the Saviour, afterwards became a traitor and an apostate. Moreover, concerning these very men, warnings are not wanting to us, for the Lord foretold: "Take heed that ye be not deceived: for many shall come in My name, saying, I am Christ; and the time draweth near: go ye not therefore after them." Paul, too, having learnt these things from the Saviour, wrote, "In the latter times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits, and doctrines of devils which turn away from the truth."

Now concerning their blasphemous assertion who say that the Son does not perfectly know the Father, we need not wonder: for having once purposed in their mind to wage war against Christ, they impugn also these words of His, "As the Father knoweth Me, even so know I the Father." … Moreover, concerning these very men, warnings are not wanting to us, for the Lord foretold: "Take heed that ye be not deceived: for many shall come in My name, saying, I am Christ; and the time draweth near: go ye not therefore after them." Paul, too, having learnt these things from the Saviour, wrote, "In the latter times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits, and doctrines of devils which turn away from the truth."

And lest in this case they should, being uncovered, be dispersed in the bosom of the earth, did she indeed wash and anoint them with fragrant gums before wrapping and covering them with his dress? For whence could the violet's sweet scent have come had not the addition of those ointments modified the putrefying smell of the member? Pray, when you read such tales, do you not seem to yourselves to hear either girls at the loom wiling away their tedious working hours, or old women seeking diversions for credulous children, and to be declaring manifold fictions under the guise of truth?

But the wise servants of the Lord, who have really put on the new nature created in the likeness of God, listen to what he says. They apply to themselves the commandment given to Timothy, "Set an example for the believers in speech, in conduct, in love, in faith, in purity." They keep the Easter feast so properly that even unbelievers, seeing their orderliness, must say, "God is truly with them."

Therefore it becomes us to watch, lest some deception be conveyed under the clothing of their phrases and they lead some away from the true faith. And if they venture to advance the opinions of Arius, when they see themselves proceeding in a prosperous course, nothing remains for us but to use great boldness of speech. For we are to remember the predictions of the apostle, which he wrote to forewarn us of such heresies and which it becomes us to repeat. For we know that, as it is written, "in the latter times some shall depart from the true faith, giving heed to seducing spirits and doctrines of devils, that turn from the truth."

Therefore St. Paul urges us to exercise our faith in the face of troubles. Having already come through them victoriously, he said, "Therefore I take pleasure in persecutions and weaknesses." In another place he said, "Exercise yourself in godliness." He knew that those who choose to live godly lives are going to be persecuted, so he wanted his disciples to be aware of the difficulties they would face. Then when the trials and afflictions did come, they would have built up enough strength to handle them easily. You yourself know that when you've been looking forward to something, even if it's hard, you experience a secret joy when it actually comes.

Virtues and vices are the food of the soul, which can feed on either one, turning to whichever one it wants to. If it is bent toward moral excellence, it will be fed by virtue—by righteousness, temperance, meekness, endurance. In other words, it's just as St. Paul says, "being nourished by the word of truth." That's the way it was with our Lord, who said, "My food is to do the will of him who sent me."

It should also be laid down as essential that continency is inexorably demanded of combatants for godliness, so that they may bring the body into subjection, "for every athlete exercises self-control in all things." However, to avoid being classed with the enemies of God who are seared in their conscience and, therefore, abstain from food which God has made for the faithful to partake of with thanksgiving, we should taste each dish when occasion offers so as to indicate to those looking on that "all things are clean to the clean" and that "every creature of God is good and nothing to be rejected that is received with thanksgiving; for it is sanctified by the word of God and prayer." The aim of continency must nevertheless be kept in mind also, to the extent that we satisfy our need with the plainer foods and those necessary to sustain life, avoiding the evil of taking our fill of them and abstaining absolutely from those foods whose sole purpose is to give delight.

So, then, the supeio guide is to be mindful of the apostle's pecept, "Be an example to the faithful." He should make his life a shining model fo the obsevance of evey commandment of the Lod, so that thee may be no excuse fo those unde his guidance to think the Lod's commands impossible o eadily to be set aside. He should conside fist, then, that which is fist in impotance. He should be, by the love of Chist, so confimed in humility that, even if he is silent, the example of his actions may affod moe effective instuction than any wods. If, indeed, the goal of Chistianity is the imitation of Chist accoding to the measue of his incanation, insofa as is confomable with the vocation of each individual, they who ae entusted with the guidance of many othes ae obliged to animate those still weake than themselves, by thei assistance, to the imitation of Chist. The Long Rules, q...

So, then, the superior guide is to be mindful of the apostle's precept, "Be an example to the faithful." He should make his life a shining model for the observance of every commandment of the Lord, so that there may be no excuse for those under his guidance to think the Lord's commands impossible or readily to be set aside. He should consider first, then, that which is first in importance. He should be, by the love of Christ, so confirmed in humility that, even if he is silent, the example of his actions may afford more effective instruction than any words. If, indeed, the goal of Christianity is the imitation of Christ according to the measure of his incarnation, insofar as is conformable with the vocation of each individual, they who are entrusted with the guidance of many others are obliged to animate those still weaker than themselves, by their assistance, to the imitation of Christ.

This, assuredly, appeared to me to be ridiculous—to vow to abstain from pork. Therefore, teach them to refrain from foolish prayers and promises; nevertheless, allow the use to be a matter of indifference. No creature of God which is received with thanksgiving is to be rejected. Therefore, the vow is ridiculous; the abstinence is not necessary.

Surely only an infantile mind, like a baby who can only drink milk, is ignorant of the great mystery of our salvation. Education progresses gradually. The school of righteousness attempts to bring us to maturity by first teaching us easy, elementary lessons suited for our limited intelligence. Then God, who provides us with every good thing, leads us to the truth, by gradually accustoming our darkened eyes to its great light. In the deep reaches of his wisdom and the unsearchable judgments of his intelligence, he spares our weakness and prescribes a gentle treatment. He knows our eyes are accustomed to dim shadows, so he uses these at first.

We also, following our teacher Christ, "who is the Savior of all men, especially of those that believe." are obliged to say that there are two ways. One is the way of life, the other of death. These have no comparison one with another, for they are very different, or rather entirely separate. The way of life is that of nature, but that of death was afterwards introduced—it not being according to the mind of God but from the snares of the adversary.

If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon does not on festival days partake of flesh or wine, let him be deprived, as "having a seared conscience," and becoming a cause of scandal to many.

The seared conscience is a branded conscience, with the implication that they have been corrupted by falsehood which makes a mark on their consciences like a brand on skin.

Do not abhor meats as if they were taboo. The apostle evidently knew people like that, since he says that there are those "who forbid to marry and command to abstain from meats which God has created to be received with thanksgiving by those who believe." If therefore you are abstaining from these things, let it not be as from things abominated, or your reward is lost, but as good things let them be transcended, in the quest of the fairer spiritual rewards that are set before you.

That the Holy Spirit subsists, lives, speaks and foretells I have told you repeatedly on former occasions. Paul writes clearly to Timothy, "Now the Spirit expressly says that in later times some will depart from the faith." This we see in the factions of former times and in our own day. How diverse and multiform are the errors of the heretics.

Let no one think … we are disregarding the institution of marriage. We are not ignorant of the fact that this also is not deprived of God's blessing. But since there is sufficient support for it and since the common nature of man, bestowed on all who come to birth through marriage, automatically inclines in this direction—whereas virginity somehow goes against nature—it would be superfluous to go to the trouble of writing a plea for marriage or a eulogy of it. It is pointless to emphasize its indisputable inducement, I mean pleasure, unless there should be need of such words because of some people who tamper with the teachings of the church on marriage, whom the apostle calls "those having their conscience branded."

The whole of creation is in inward harmony, since the bond of concord is nowhere broken by the natural opposition. In the same way the divine wisdom also provides a blending and admixture of the sensible with the intelligible nature, so that all things equally participate in the good and no existing thing is deprived of a share in the higher nature. Now the sphere corresponding to the intelligible nature is a subtle and mobile essence, which by virtue of its special nature and its transcending the world has a great affinity with the intelligible. Yet, for the reason given, a superior wisdom provides a mingling of the intelligible with the sensible creation. In that way, as the apostle says, "no part of creation is to be rejected," and no part fails to share in the divine fellowship. On this account the divine nature produces in man a blending of the intelligible and the sensible, just as the account of creation teaches.

Let it be observed that there is no such thing in the world as evil irrespective of a will. Evil is not discoverable in a substance apart from willing. Every creature of God is good, and nothing of his "to be rejected." All that God made was "very good." But the habit of sinning entered as we have described, and with fatal quickness, into the life of man. From that small beginning spread into this infinitude of evil. Then that godly beauty of the soul which was an imitation of the Archetypal Beauty, like fine steel blackened with vicious rust, preserved no longer the glory of its familiar essence but was disfigured with the ugliness of sin.

The Savior of all, especially of believers, is spoken of by the apostle as one. Yet no one argues from this expression that the Son does not save believers or that those who share in salvation receive it apart from the Spirit. But God who is over all is the Savior of all, while the Son brings salvation to effect by the grace of the Spirit. Yet on this account Scripture does not call them three Saviors, although salvation is recognized to come from the holy Trinity.

Some indeed put it thus, "Incline my heart unto Thy testimonies and not to what is useful." The reference is to that kind of usefulness which is always on the watch for making gains in business and has been bent and diverted by the habits of men to the pursuit of money. For as a rule most people call that only useful which is profitable, but we are speaking of that kind of usefulness which is sought in earthly loss "that we may gain Christ," whose gain is "godliness with contentment." Great, too, is the gain whereby we attain to godliness, which is rich with God, not indeed in fleeting wealth but in eternal gifts, and in which rests no uncertain trial but grace constant and unending. There is therefore a usefulness connected with the body, and also one that has to do with godliness, according to the apostle's division, "Bodily exercise profits a little, but godliness is profitable for all things."

As for me, indeed, would that they might have a will to hear, that they might believe—to hear with true love and meekness, as men seeking what is true and not assailing all truth. For it is written that we pay no heed to "endless fables and genealogies, which do rather raise disputes than set forward the godly edification, which is in faith. But the aim of the charge is love from a pure heart, and a good conscience, and faith unfeigned, whence some have erred and betaken themselves to empty babbling. For they are desirous of being teachers of the law, without understanding the words they say, nor the things whereof they speak with assurance." In another place also the same apostle says, "Avoid foolish and ignorant questionings." Such men, who sow disputes—that is to say, heretics—the apostle bids us leave alone. Of them he says in yet another place that "certain shall depart from the faith, giving heed to deceitful spirits and the doctrines of devils."

"For bodily exercise profiteth little." This has by some been referred to fasting; but away with such a notion! for that is not a bodily but a spiritual exercise. If it were bodily it would nourish the body, whereas it wastes and makes it lean, so that it is not bodily. Hence he is not speaking of the discipline of the body. What we need, therefore, is the exercise of the soul. For the exercise of the body hath no profit, but may benefit the body a little, but the exercise of godliness yields fruit and advantage both here and hereafter.

"Well," someone says, "what do you expect us to do? To live in the mountains and become monks?" This question saddens me for this reason, that some think only monks to be truly concerned with decency and chastity. Yet surely Christ made his laws to apply to everyone.… Indeed, I do not "forbid marriage," nor do I mean to block your access to pleasure, but I want you to have it in a chaste way, not shamefully or in a way deserving reproach and subject to endless misgivings. I do not insist that you live in the mountains and the deserts but that you be good and moderate and chaste, while dwelling in the midst of the city.

"Forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats." Why then has he mentioned no other heresies? Though not particularized, they are implied by the expressions of "seducing spirits and doctrines of demons." But he did not wish to instill these things into the minds of men before the time; but that which had already commenced, the case of meats, he specifies. "Which God hath created to be received with thanksgiving of them which believe and know the truth." Why did he not say, by the unbelievers too? How by the unbelievers, when they exclude themselves from them by their own rules? But is not luxury forbidden? Certainly it is. But why? if good things are created to be received. Because He created bread, and yet too much is forbidden; and wine also, and yet excess is forbidden; and we are not commanded to avoid dainties as if they were unclean in themselves, but as they corrupt the soul by excess.

It is then the last time. For "in the latter times," he says, "some shall depart from the faith." "Forbidding to marry." And do not we forbid to marry? God forbid. We do not forbid those who wish to marry, but those who do not wish to marry, we exhort to virginity. It is one thing to forbid, and another to leave one to his own free choice. He that forbids, does it once for all, but he who recommends virginity as a higher state, does not forbid marriage, because he prefers virginity.

"Forbidding to marry," he says, "and commanding to abstain from meats, which God hath created to be received with thanksgiving of them which believe and know the truth." It is well said, "who know the truth." The former things then were a type. For nothing is unclean by nature, but it becomes so through the conscience of him that partakes of it. And what was the object of the prohibition of so many meats? To restrain excessive luxury. But had it been said, "eat not for the sake of luxury," it would not have been borne. They were therefore shut up under the necessity of the law, that they might abstain from the stronger principle of fear. The fish was not forbidden, though it was manifestly more unclean than the swine. But they might have learned how pernicious luxury was from that saying of Moses, "Jeshurun waxed fat, and kicked." (Deut. xxxii. 15) Another cause of these prohibitions might be, that being straitened for other food, they might be reduced to slaughter sheep and oxen; he therefore restrained them from other things, on account of Apis and the calf, which was an abomination, ungrateful, polluted, and profane.

"Let no man despise thy youth." Observe that it becomes a priest to command and to speak authoritatively, and not always to teach. But because, from a common prejudice, youth is apt to be despised, therefore he says, "Let no man despise thy youth." For a teacher ought not to be exposed to contempt. But if he is not to be despised, what room is there for meekness and moderation? Indeed the contempt that he falls into personally he ought to bear; for teaching is commended by longsuffering. But not so, where others are concerned; for this is not meekness, but coldness. If a man revenge insults, and ill language, and injuries offered to himself, you justly blame him. But where the salvation of others is concerned, command, and interpose with authority. This is not a case for moderation, but for authority, lest the public good suffer. He enjoins one or the other as the case may require. Let no one despise thee on account of thy youth. For as long as thy life is a counterpoise, thou wilt not be despised for thy youth, but even the more admired: therefore he proceeds to say, "But be thou an example of the believers in word, in conversation, in charity, in faith, in purity." In all things showing thyself an example of good works: that is, be thyself a pattern of a Christian life, as a model set before others, as a living law, as a rule and standard of good living, for such ought a teacher to be. "In word," that he may speak with facility, "in conversation, in charity, in faith, in" true "purity, in temperance."

"Meditate upon these things; give thyself wholly to them." Observe how often he gives him counsel concerning the same things, thus showing that a teacher ought above all things to be attentive to these points.

"That thy profiting may appear," he says, "to all." Thus he would have him appear great and admirable in this respect also, showing that this was still necessary for him, for he wished that his "profiting should appear" not only in his life, but in the word of doctrine.

"Take heed," he says, "unto thyself, and unto the doctrine: continue in them." That is, take heed to thyself, and teach others also. "For in so doing thou shalt both save thyself and them that hear thee." It is well said, "Thou shalt save thyself." For he that is "nourished up in the words of sound doctrine," first receives the benefit of it himself. From admonishing others, he is touched with compunction himself. For these things are not said to Timothy only, but to all. And if such advice is addressed to him, who raised the dead, what shall be said to us? Christ also shows the duty of teachers, when He says, "The kingdom of heaven is like unto an householder, who bringeth forth out of his treasure things new and old." And the blessed Paul gives the same advice, that "we through patience and comfort of the Scriptures might have hope." This he practiced above all men, being brought up in the law of his fathers, at the feet of Gamaliel, whence he would afterwards naturally apply to reading: for he who exhorted others would himself first follow the advice he gave. Hence we find him continually appealing to the testimony of the prophets, and searching into their writings. Paul then applies to reading, for it is no slight advantage that is to be reaped from the Scriptures. But we are indolent, and we hear with carelessness and indifference. What punishment do we not deserve!

As those who adhere to the faith are fixed on a safe anchor, so those who fall from the faith can nowhere rest; but after many wanderings to and fro, they are borne at last into the very gulf of perdition. And this he had shown before, saying, that some had "already made shipwreck concerning the faith," and now he says, "Now the Spirit speaketh expressly, that in the latter times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits." This is said of the Manichaeans, the Encratites, and the Marcionites, and the whole of their tribe, that they should hereafter depart from the faith. Seest thou that this departure from the faith is the cause of all the evils that follow!

But what is "expressly"? Plainly, clearly, and beyond doubt. Marvel not, he says, if some having departed from the faith still adhere to Judaism. There will be a time, when even those who have partaken of the faith will fall into a worse error, not only with respect to meats, but to marriages, and other such things, introducing the most pernicious notions. This refers not to the Jews, (for "the latter times," and a "departure from the faith," is not applicable to them;) but to the Manichees, and the founders of these sects. And he calls them very justly, "seducing spirits," since it was by these they were actuated in speaking such things.

"For every creature of God is good, and nothing to be refused, if it be received with thanksgiving."

If it be the creature of God, it is good. For "all things," it is said, "were very good." (Gen. i. 31) By speaking thus of things eatable, he by anticipation impugns the heresy of those who introduce an uncreated matter, and assert that these things proceed from it. But if it is good, why is it "sanctified by the word of God and prayers"? For it must be unclean, if it is to be sanctified? Not so, here he is speaking to those who thought that some of these things were common; therefore he lays down two positions: first, that no creature of God is unclean: secondly, that if it were become so, you have a remedy, seal it, give thanks, and glorify God, and all the uncleanness passes away. Can we then so cleanse that which is offered to an idol? If you know not that it was so offered. But if, knowing this, you partake of it, you will be unclean; not because it was offered to an idol, but because contrary to an express command, you thereby communicate with devils. So that it is not unclean by nature, but becomes so through your wilful disobedience. What then, is not swine's flesh unclean? By no means, when it is received with thanksgiving, and with the seal; nor is anything else. It is your unthankful disposition to God that is unclean.

In some cases it is necessary to command, in others to teach; if therefore you command in those cases where teaching is required, you will become ridiculous. Again, if you teach where you ought to command, you are exposed to the same reproach. For instance, it is not proper to teach a man not to be wicked, but to command; to forbid it with all authority. Not to profess Judaism, should be a command, but teaching is required, when you would lead men to part with their possessions, to profess virginity, or when you would discourse of faith. Therefore Paul mentions both: "Command and teach."

If you are willing, you will have more success with each other than we can have. For you both are with one another for a longer time, and you know more than we of each other's affairs. Further, you are not ignorant of each other's failings, and you have more freedom of speech, and love and intimacy. These are no small advantages for teaching but great and opportune moments for it. You will be more able than we both to reprove and exhort. And not this only, but because I am but one, whereas you are many; and you will be able, however many, to be teachers. Therefore I entreat you, do not "neglect this gift."

"Neglect not the gift that is in thee, which was given thee by prophecy." Here he calls teaching prophecy. "With the laying on of the hands of the presbytery." He speaks not here of Presbyters, but of Bishops. For Presbyters cannot be supposed to have ordained a Bishop.

"This is a faithful saying," that is, it is true that godliness is profitable both here and hereafter. Observe how everywhere he brings in this, he needs no demonstration, but simply declares it, for he was addressing Timothy.

So then even here, we have good hopes? For he who is conscious to himself of no evil, and who has been fruitful in good, rejoices even here: as the wicked man on the other hand is punished here as well as hereafter. He lives in perpetual fear, he can look no one in the face with confidence, he is pale, trembling, and full of anxiety. Is it not so with the fraudulent, and with thieves, who have no satisfaction even in what they possess? Is not the life of murderers and adulterers most wretched, who look upon the sun itself with suspicion? Is this to be called life? No; rather a horrid death!

In what did St. Paul surpass the rest of the apostles?… Is it not because of the excellence of his epistles? By this he has helped and will help and, as long as the human race remains, will never stop helping the faithful, not only of his own time but from that day to this and those who shall believe until the coming of Christ. For his writings fortify the churches all over the world like a wall of steel.… His writings are not only useful to us for the refutation of false doctrine and the establishment of the true, but they help us very greatly, too, in living a good life.… These facts are enough to show that he took great pains over this part of his work. But listen also to what he says to his disciple in a letter, "Give heed to reading, to exhortation, to teaching."

It is not possible, I say, not possible, ever to exhaust the mind of the Scriptures. It is a well which has no bottom.

"Till I come give attendance to reading, to exhortation, to doctrine." Even Timothy is commanded to apply to reading. Let us then be instructed not to neglect the study of the sacred writings. Again, observe, he says, "Till I come." Mark how he consoles him, for being as it were an orphan, when separated from him, it was natural that he should require such comfort. "Till I come," he says, give attendance to reading the divine writings, to exhortation of one another, to teaching of all.

"For therefore we both labor and suffer reproach, because we trust in the living God, who is the Saviour of all men, specially of them that believe."

This in effect is to say, wherefore do we mortify ourselves, unless we expect future blessings? Have we endured so many evils, submitted to so many reproaches, suffered such insults and calumnies, and such numerous calamities in vain? For if we did not trust in the living God, on what account did we submit to these things? But if God is here the Saviour of the unbelieving, much more is He of the faithful hereafter. What salvation does he speak of? That to come? "Who is the Saviour," he says, "of all men, specially of them that believe." At present he is speaking of that which is here. But how is He the Saviour of the faithful? Had he not been so, they must long since have been destroyed, for all men have made war upon them. He calls him here to endure perils, that having God for his Saviour he may not faint nor need any aid from others, but willingly and with fortitude endure all things. Even those who eagerly grasp at worldly advantages, supported by the hope of gain, cheerfully undertake laborious enterprises.

In what way then is she a virgin who has fallen away from the faith, who has devoted herself to the deceivers, who obeys the demons and honors falsehood? In what way is she a virgin who has a seared conscience? For the virgin must be pure not only in body but also in soul if she is going to receive the holy bridegroom.… Virginity is defined by holiness of body and soul. But if a woman is unholy and impure in each respect, how could she be a virgin?… But she shows me a pale face, wasted limbs, a shabby garment and gentle glance.… What is the good of all that when the eye of the soul is bold, for what could be more audacious than that eye encouraging her real eyes to consider the objects of God's creation as bad?

"Speaking lies in hypocrisy." This implies that they utter not these falsehoods through ignorance and unknowingly, but as acting a part, knowing the truth, but "having their conscience seared," that is, being men of evil lives.

But why does he speak only of these heretics? Christ had before said, "Offenses must need come" (Matt. xviii. 7), and he had predicted the same in his parable of the sower, and of the springing up of the tares. But here admire with me the prophetic gift of Paul, who, before the times in which they were to appear, specifies the time itself. As if he had said, Do not wonder, if, at the commencement of the faith, some endeavor to bring in these pernicious doctrines; since, after it has been established for a length of time, many shall depart from the faith.

"But refuse profane and old wives' fables, and exercise thyself rather unto godliness."

By these are meant Jewish traditions, and he calls them "fables," either because of their falsehood or their unseasonableness. For what is seasonable is useful, but what is unseasonable is not only useless but injurious. Suppose a man of adult age to be suckled by a nurse, would he not be ridiculous, because it is unseasonable? "Profane and old wives' fables," he calls them, partly because of their obsoleteness, and partly because they are impediments to faith. For to bring souls under fear, that are raised above these things, is an impious commandment. "Exercise thyself unto godliness." That is, unto a pure faith and a moral life; for this is godliness. So then we need "exercise."

"But exercise thyself unto godliness," that is, unto a pure life, and the most virtuous conversation. He that exerciseth himself, even when it is not the season of contest, acts always as if he were contending, practices abstinence, endures all toils, is always anxious, endures much labor. "Exercise thyself," he saith, "unto godliness; for bodily exercise profiteth little, but godliness is profitable for all things, having the promise of the life that now is, and of that which is to come." And why, says one, does he mention this bodily exercise? To show by comparison the superiority of the other, in that the former is of no solid advantage, though it is attended with many toils, whilst the latter has a lasting and abundant good. As when he bids women "adorn themselves, not with broidered hair, or gold, or costly array: but which becometh women possessing godliness; with good works." (1 Tim. ii. 9, 10)

But if it is good, why is it "sanctified by the word of God and prayers"? For it must be unclean, if it is to be sanctified? Not so, here he is speaking to those who thought that some of these things were common; therefore he lays down two positions: first, that no creature of God is unclean: secondly, that if it were become so, you have a remedy, seal it, give thanks, and glorify God, and all the uncleanness passes away.

"If thou put the brethren in remembrance of these things, thou shall be a good minister of Jesus Christ, nourished up in the words of faith and of good doctrine, whereunto thou hast attained."

What are the things here meant? The same which he had before mentioned, that "great is the mystery"; that to abstain from meats is the doctrine of devils, that they are "cleansed by the word of God and prayer."

"Putting them in remembrance," he says; here you observe no authority; but all is condescension: he does not say "commanding" or "enjoining," but reminding them: that is, suggest these things as matter of advice, and so enter into discourses with them concerning the faith, "being nourished up," he says, meaning to imply constancy in application to these things.

For as we set before us day by day this bodily nourishment, so he means, let us be continually receiving discourses concerning the faith, and ever be nourished with them. What is this, "being nourished up"? Ruminating upon them; attending ever to the same things, and practicing ever the same, for it is no common nourishment that they supply.

"Put them in remembrance of these things, meditate upon these things," for by the expression, "nourished up in the words of faith and sound doctrine," is implied that he should not only recommend these things to others, but himself practice them. For he says, "Nourished up in the words of faith, and of good doctrine, whereunto thou hast attained. But refuse profane and old wives' fables." Why does he not say, abstain from them, but "refuse"? He thus intimates that they should be utterly rejected. His meaning is, that he should not enter into any disputation with the teachers of them, but recommend to his own people the things prescribed above. For nothing is to be gained by contending with perverse men, unless where it might have an injurious effect, if we were supposed from weakness to decline arguing with them.

How could anyone be silent in regard to the divine authority of the Holy Spirit? The ancient prophets cried out, "These things say the Lord." When Christ came, he also used this word "say" in his own person, "But I say unto you." Listen now to what the prophets of the New Testament proclaim. Take the prophet Agabus in the Acts of the Apostles, "Thus says the Holy Spirit." So, too, Paul to Timothy, "Now the Spirit expressly says …"

Have I not, I would ask, in the very forefront of my work set the following preface: "We are no disciples of Marcion or of Manichaeus, to detract from marriage. Nor are we deceived by the error of Tatian, the chief of the Encratites, into supposing all cohabitation unclean. For he condemns and reprobates not marriage only but foods also which God has created for us to enjoy. We know that in a large house there are vessels not only of silver and of gold but of wood also and of earth. We know, too, that on the foundation of Christ which Paul the master builder has laid, some build up gold, silver and precious stones; others, on the contrary, hay, wood and stubble."

The apostle clearly teaches that presbyters are the same as bishops.… Writing to Titus the apostle says, "For this cause I left you in Crete, that you should set in order the things that are wanting, and appoint presbyters in every city, as I had instructed. If any be blameless, the husband of one wife, having believing children not accused of wantonness or unruly. For a bishop must be blameless as the steward of God." And to Timothy he says, "Neglect not the gift of prophecy that is in you, which was given you through the laying on of hands of the presbytery."

Those whom he calls presbyters in this passage are not those whom we now call by that name—Paul does not usually allow to presbyters as such the power of ordination by the laying on of hands. Rather he says that the gathering of the apostles was present with him when he laid hands in his ordination. He calls this the "council of presbyters" as a designation of honor. It is in accordance with this custom that at the ordination of a bishop not one, but the multitude of bishops present, implement the ordination.

"Having their consciences seared" means not having a whole conscience, for they live the opposite of what they teach.

Paul is here rejecting apocryphal books that profess to contain his teaching or that of other apostles but that are really misrepresentations of that teaching.

"Godliness," then, "which is the true worship of God, is profitable to all things," since it deflects or blunts the troubles of this life and leads to that other life, our salvation, where we shall suffer no evil and enjoy the supreme and everlasting good. I exhort you as I do myself to pursue this happiness more earnestly and to hold to it with strong constancy.

The fact that the Lord was invited and came to the wedding, even without considering the mystical meaning, was meant to affirm what he himself created. For there were going to be those, about whom the apostle spoke, who would forbid marriage and say that marriage is an evil and that the devil created it, although the same Lord in the Gospel, when asked whether a man is allowed to divorce his wife for any reason, replied that he is not allowed except in the case of fornication.

The church of God, established in the midst of much chaff and much cockle, tolerates many things, yet it does not approve or accept in silence or practice those things that are contrary to faith and good living. Therefore, what you wrote of certain brothers refraining from meat because they believe it to be unclean is very clearly against faith and sound doctrine.

In what way is it said that bad shepherds kill the sheep? By leading bad lives, by setting a bad example. Was it for nothing that a servant of God was told, one prominent among the members of the supreme shepherd, "Offering yourself in all company as an example of good works"; and "Be a model to the faithful". You see, even a strong sheep often enough, when he notices his pastor leading a bad life, if his eyes wander from the rules of the Lord and are attracted by human considerations, begins to say to himself, "If my pastor lives like that, who am I not to behave as he does?" He has killed a strong sheep. So if he has killed a strong sheep, what must he be doing for the others, seeing that by his bad life he has slaughtered what he hadn't fattened himself, but has found fat and sturdy?

However, the life of the speaker has greater weight in determining whether he is obediently heard than any grandness of eloquence. For he who speaks wisely and eloquently but lives wickedly may benefit many students, even though, as it is written, he "may be unprofitable to his own soul." … And thus they benefit many by preaching what they do not practice; but many more would be benefitted if they were to do what they say. For there are many who seek a defense of their evil lives in those of their superiors and teachers, responding in their hearts or, if it breaks forth so far, with their lips, and saying, "Why do you not do what you preach that I do?" Thus it happens that they do not obediently hear one who does not hear himself, and they condemn the word of God which is preached to them along with the preacher himself. Hence, when the apostle, writing to Timothy, said, "Let no man despise thy youth," he added the reason why he was not to be despised and said, "but be an example of the faithful in word, in conduct, in charity, in faith, in chastity."

There is no way of resisting the temptation to pride except by instilling the fear and love of God, through frequent pondering of the sacred books. But he who does this must show himself a model of patience and humility by attributing to himself less honor than is offered, neither swallowing all nor refusing all from those who honor him. What praise and honor he accepts he must not receive for himself—for he should refer all to God and despise human things—but for the sake of those whom he could not help if he were to lose dignity by too great self-depreciation. Applicable to this is the saying, "let no man despise your youth," recalling that he who said that said in another place, "If I yet pleased men, I should not be the servant of Christ."

Considering the signs mentioned by Gospel and prophecy which we see happening, would anyone deny that we ought to hope for the coming of the Lord? Manifestly, it is nearer and nearer every day. But the exact span of the nearness, that, as we said, "is not for you to know." Notice when the apostle said this, "For our salvation is nearer than when we believed. The night is past and the day is at hand," and look how many years have passed! Yet, what he said was not untrue. How much more probable is it to say now that the coming of the Lord is near when there has been such an increase of time toward the end! Certainly the apostle said, "The Spirit manifestly says that in the last times some shall depart from the faith." Obviously, those were not yet the times of heretics such as he describes them in the same sentence, but they have now come. According to this, we seem to be in the last times, and the heretics seem to be a warning of the end of the world.

The fulfillment of these predictions in the Manichaeans is as clear as day to all that know them and has already been proved as fully as time permits.

Because sin or iniquity is not a seeking of things evil by nature but an abandonment of the better things, this is found written in Scripture. "Every creature is good." Every tree that God planted in paradise was good. Man, therefore, did not desire anything evil by nature when he touched the forbidden tree. But by departing from what was better he himself committed an act that was evil.

It is not the uncleanness of meat that I fear, but the uncleanness of an incontinent appetite.

As there is an unconscious worship of idols and devils in the fanciful legends of the Manichaeans, so they knowingly serve the creature in their worship of the sun and the moon. And in what they call their service of the Creator they really serve their own fancy, and not the Creator at all. For they deny that God created those things which the apostle plainly declares to the creatures of God, when he says of food, "Every creature of God is good, and nothing to be refused, if it is received with thanksgiving." This is sound doctrine.… The apostle praises the creature of God but forbids the worship of it. And in the same way Moses gives due praise to the sun and moon, while at the same time he states the fact of their having been made by God. They have been placed by him in their courses—the sun to rule the day, and the moon to rule the night.

But in the Lord's own very humility (in consenting to be baptized by John) there is a marvelous medicine; one was baptizing, the other healing. You see, if Christ is the Savior of all, especially of the faithful—it is the apostle's judgment, and a true one, that Christ is the Savior of all—then nobody may say, "I have no need of a savior." If you say this, you are not bowing humbly to the doctor's orders but perishing in your disease.

St. Paul is plainly referring to this when he says, "bodily exercise is profitable for a little, but godliness" (by which he surely means charity) "is profitable for all things, having the promise of the life that now is and of the life to come." What is said to be profitable for a little cannot be profitable forever and cannot (of itself) bring a man to the perfect life. The phrase "for a little" might mean one of two things. It might mean "for a short time," since these bodily exercises are not going to last as long as the man who practices them. Or it might mean "only of little profit." Corporal austerity brings the first beginnings of progress, but it does not beget that perfect charity which has the promise of this life and the life to come.

"Consciences seared" refers to their final numbing, the deadening of their consciences.

"Godless wives tales" are Jewish speculations in the form of false interpretations of the law and its proper observance.

The first cause of sin crept in from the enjoyment of food. What more salutary gift of God does our redeemed liberty use than that the will, which once did not know how to restrain itself from forbidden things, now knows how to restrain itself from lawful things? "Every creature of God is good, and nothing ought to be rejected, which is received with the giving of thanks." We were not created to seek out all the riches of the world with a foul and shameless greed. We can restrain voluntarily from what is lawful.

[Syncletica] also said, 'It is dangerous for a man to try teaching before he is trained in the good life. A man whose house is about to fall down may invite travellers inside to refresh them, but instead they will be hurt in the collapse of the house. It is the same with teachers who have not carefully trained themselves in the good life; they destroy their hearers as well as themselves. Their mouth invites to salvation, their way of life leads to ruin.'

In addition, if grief and trouble, even perils and reproaches from an unlearned people are stirred up as the result of a spirit of animosity, bear them with courage and constancy. Look rather to our Lord and Savior, the true shepherd who condescended to suffer, not only tribulation but even death, for the sake of the sheep. It is necessary for you to bear many adversities, if you want to preserve right doctrine and continuously to preach the word of God as it is expedient to do. The precepts of justice are always bitter to those who lead a wicked life. For this reason I exhort you today in the sight of God and his angels, and I declare with the voice of the apostle, "Devote yourself to the reading of Scripture, to preaching and teaching."

Train yourself to godliness; for physical exercise is of little profit, but godliness is profitable for all things, having promise of the life that now is and of that which is to come.

Train. That is, accustom yourself.

to godliness. Godliness is the diligence and zeal of life with right faith.

for physical exercise. It makes the body healthy. However, in comparison it is only for a short time.

having promise of the life. Do you see the benefit? That godliness also in the present and in the future life gives life to the spiritual life.

who forbid marriage, abstain from foods which God created to be received with thanksgiving by the faithful who know the truth.

who forbid marriage. What then? Do Christians not hinder from marrying? By no means. "Marriage is honorable in all things, and the bed undefiled." (Heb. 13:4) But those who do not wish to marry are urged to abstinence. And those who hinder marriage are said to hinder on account of impurity.

abstain from foods. It is not a mistake or a lapse in elegance of speech when it says, "to abstain from foods", which seemed to some not even a matter of apostolic vision, but rightly expressed according to the Attic custom (dialect). Just as the phrase, "He prevented him from doing improper things," does not mean that he encouraged him to do improper things; and likewise, "He deterred him from offending friends," does not mean offending friends, but rather the opposite. And again, "He prevented him from stealing," does not mean that he permitted theft. And, "He prevented ceasing from speaking," instead of, "He kept away from such an action." Thus also, "They prevented abstaining from foods," instead of, "They prevented from eating." And this usage is also frequent among outsiders.

created to be received [μετάληψιν] with thanksgiving. See how Paul expelled luxury in the name of participation [μεταλήψεως]. For to be received [μετάληψιν] signifies a measured reception [μεμετρημένην]. And he did not expel luxury as something unclean, but as something obstructive due to excess and, as it were, a rupture of the soul.

To the faithful, God has created foods to be received [μετάληψιν] thankfully. But not to the unbelievers anymore. For by their own laws they shut themselves off from them.

who know the truth. The Jewish rites were indeed a shadow; now the truth has come. Many things were forbidden to them, not because they were impure, but to restrain indulgences. But the truth speaks of the faith which is in Christ.

Study these things; give yourself entirely to them, so that your progress may be evident to all. Take heed to yourself and to the doctrine; continue in them. For by doing this, you will save both yourself and those who hear you.

Study these things. Which ones? Those that Paul mentioned above. In word, he says, in conduct, in faith, in purity. And from the frequent repetition of the same things, it shows that the bishop must unquestionably guard these things.

your progress may be evident to all. But if the progress does not become very great, it would not become obvious. In all, either with people or with matters.

Take regard to yourself. That is, focus and apply your mind, not only for yourself but also for the sake of learning, so that you may benefit others as well. Then, giving precise instructions, Paul said, continue in them. For by doing this, you will save both yourself and those who hear you. For encouraging others, the one who encourages is also moved and benefited, becoming responsible for those whom he prevents from sinning.

That he may suitably adapt himself to each individual.

Until I come, give attention to reading, to exhortation, to teaching. Do not neglect the gift that is in you, which was given to you through prophecy with the laying on of the hands of the elders.

Until I come, give attention to reading. It was likely that Timothy himself, as if deprived of Paul, wished for him. Therefore, he comforts him in two ways, both with the promise of his coming and with the consoling Scriptures. But notice that Timothy is instructed to read, which we ought to do.

to exhortation. To the people.

Do not neglect the gift that is in you. This is, the teaching or the office of a bishop. For the grace of God was that the young man was worthy to become a pastor.

which was given to you through prophecy. For bishops were appointed by the command of the Spirit, and not randomly. But there is also a kind of prophecy that speaks of the present; as is said, "Separate for me Barnabas and Saul." (Acts 13:2)

with the laying on of the hands of the elders. Paul says that the bishops are elders. For the elders would not have ordained the bishop.

Command these things, and teach them. Let no one despise your youth, but be an example to the believers in word, in conduct, in love, in spirit, in faith, in purity.

Concerning those who err in knowledge, it is necessary to command them with authority; but concerning those who err in ignorance, to simply teach them. The one who encourages toward good, teaches; but the one who hinders evil, commands.

Let no one despise your youth. For the bishop must also speak more authoritatively. Therefore, "Let your forbearance be known to all men?" (Phil. 4:5) And we say that, when he himself is wronged, he ought to be gentle; but when the brothers are wronged by sinning, he ought to be strict.

Or thus. If you live a most modest life, youth, which is easily prone to contempt, will not be despised.

but be an example to the believers. Like a living image, and a standard of good living.

in word, he says, in speaking, what is necessary for a teacher. But see that the teacher must have preparation of speech.

in conduct. For example, in life and in the practice of living.

in love. Which is towards all.

in spirit. Either by spiritual rank or by the gift of the spirit, do not exalt yourself because of this.

in faith. The straight path by which one may unquestionably believe in God, even concerning the impossible.

in purity. That is, holiness, abstinence, and self-discipline.

This is a faithful saying and worthy of all acceptance. For to this end we both labor and suffer criticism, because we trust in the living God, who is the Savior of all, especially of those who believe.

This is a faithful saying and worthy of all acceptance. What kind? The one that gives life both here and there. And see that you yourself are also trustworthy, as if true, and acceptable to all; for in some things you are truly so, but in others doubtful. But because of the courage of the disciple, Paul speaks clearly throughout the entire Epistle.

For to this end we both labor and suffer criticism. For what purpose? "because we trust in the living God." And we too labor readily to be conscious of this, and for this very reason our enemies especially wage war against us.

who is the Savior of all. He is the Savior of all here. But here, not of all, but of those worthy to be saved. And here, He especially cares for the faithful. For even though we are fought against by so many, we are saved. Paul encourages Timothy into dangers for the sake of the faith, having God as Savior.

Concerning his care, and that of the Church.

that every creature of God is good, and nothing is to be rejected if it is received with thanksgiving. For it is sanctified by the word of God and prayer.

that every creature of God is good. Paul speaks concerning things that are edible. He already anticipates the heresy of those introducing uncreated matter and said that those were foods.

and nothing is to be rejected. Therefore, neither should the idol's food be rejected, provided it is taken with prayer, if you are unaware: since by law you become guilty who are commanded not to be defiled by the food of idols; therefore, by transgressing the law, one is defiled: just as even what is entirely pure, and taken without thanksgiving, becomes defiled because of your voluntary ingratitude.

For it is sanctified by the word of God and prayer. If it is sanctified, then is it unclean? Far from it! For everything is clean; but here two points are made against those who say that some foods are unclean. First, that every creature of God is good, and nothing is unclean. But if anyone considers something to be unclean, there is also such a thing as medicine [φάρμακον], he says. For it is sanctified by the word of God, that is, by prayer. Moreover, it is stated earlier: For it is by the word and prayer made to God that it is sanctified.

But the Spirit openly says that in later times some will abandon the faith, paying attention to deceitful spirits and teachings of demons, through the hypocrisy of liars whose consciences are seared.

But the Spirit openly says. That is, clearly and obviously. Do not be amazed, Paul says, if some now, having fallen away from the faith, Judaize. For a time will come, he says, when the faith will be more broadly extended, in which they will do even worse things, not only in the observance of foods, but also in marriages and other matters.

paying attention to deceitful spirits. For if anyone departs from faith, everything else becomes dangerous. For it is necessary from then on that the mind be attentive to impure spirits, and to demons leading man away from the right path.

and teachings of demons. Through these he revealed every wickedness, especially the Manichaeans, the Encratites, the Marcionites.

through the hypocrisy. That is, deceitful work. However, it stands that since they know the falseness of their dogmas, they strive to speak falsely. And Paul says that liars are those whose conscience has been seared by an evil life, that is, a depraved life: and because they are aware of much filth within themselves, therefore their conscience bears stubborn marks of a sleazy life. Truly, those who are such, through fear of retribution, pervert true dogmas, persuading themselves of anything rather than that only God is the just judge, the resurrection, and the retribution of good and evil.

Reject, moreover, old and profane fables.

old and profane fables." Paul refers to the Jewish observations. For these, in their own time, were useful, but now are old and rotten. He says the same about the Greek and heretical nonsense. Indeed, they are profane and impious, and the words of old men who have gone senile. Zeus, they say, had intercourse with Hera. And Ares committed adultery with Aphrodite. And Hephaestus was thrown down from heaven.

Having laid these things before the brothers, you will be a good servant of Jesus Christ, nourished by the words of faith and good doctrine which you have followed.

these things. What things? Those concerning the mystery, those concerning the heresies, those concerning foods, which Paul mentioned. But see, he did not say, "Commanding," but "Having laid," that is, giving counsel. For the bishop must be superior or noble.

you will be a good servant. For he serves Christ who teaches those things which Christ desires to be taught.

nourished by words of faith. As, Paul says, you do not depart from nourishment, so neither from these words. Or because you are nourished by spiritual nourishment in these things. Indeed, "Man shall not live by bread alone." (Matt. 4:4) For you must not only remind your brothers of these things, but also nourish yourself with them.

and good doctrine. For there is also the false doctrine of heretics.

Some suppose that by fasting he means bodily exercise. This is not true: fasting is a spiritual exercise. But by bodily exercise he means that which, although it requires great labors, nevertheless brings little profit, and only for a time.

Here, he says, piety helps a person. For one whose conscience convicts him of nothing bad both rejoices in spirit here, having sure promises of future blessings, and there will live the true life in very deed. Through comparison the apostle shows the superiority of piety.

That is, since they knew much that was impure about themselves, their conscience bore the branded marks of their impure life, and therefore condemned marriage. For if their life had truly been pure, their conscience too would have been pure and would not have condemned what God had blessed. Just as an ailing stomach condemns food, while it itself has bad digestive juices within. So then what? Do we forbid entering into marriage? By no means. But those who do not wish to enter into marriage we direct toward the keeping of virginity, teaching that it is more honorable; but from this it does not follow that marriage is already dishonorable, just as from the fact that gold is more honorable, it does not follow that it is more honorable than something honorable, and the better is better than the good, not the bad. Therefore, let the one who is able take up the gold of virginity; and the one who cannot, let him accept the silver of marriage.

What then? Did not God create foods even for unbelievers? Yes, but they abstain from them. So what then? Is indulgence not forbidden? Very much so, but not the eating of food. For eating observes moderation, while indulgence knows no measure. However, even the indulgence in food is not unclean in itself, but because it weakens the soul of those who give themselves over to it. "And those who have known the truth." Everything pertaining to the Jews was a type, but now truth reigns. Many things were forbidden to the Jews (Lev. 11 ff.), not as unclean, but in order to root out indulgence—so that they, being placed in a constrained position by the many prohibitions, would slaughter bulls and sheep and in this way come to know what kind of gods the Egyptians had invented for themselves. So by "truth" understand either faith in Christ, or simply that truth of which he will presently speak.

Since youth, owing to a common prejudice, has become something easily despised, you, says the apostle, command with authority, and no one will despise you; for a teacher must not be held in contempt. Where, then, is gentleness? Where he himself is subjected to insults, he must be gentle; but where strictness is necessary for the salvation of others, there he must command with full authority. Or: show a life adorned with good character, and your youth will not be despised, but on the contrary, will attract universal admiration. Therefore the apostle adds the following as well.

That is, be a model in life, a rule of the best life.

In word: To speak with ease, to have a word at the ready or prepared.

In conduct: In ordinary life and in the ecclesiastical order.

In love: Love that embraces all.

In spirit: Or by spiritual disposition, or by a gift of grace, so as not to be puffed up by this gift.

In faith: By a right and unwavering faith, when one believes God even in that which is impossible in the natural order.

In purity (ἐν ἁγνείᾳ – in blamelessness): That is, in virginal purity and chastity.

He frequently instructs him on the same things, wishing to show that a bishop must above all strive for this.

Not only in life, but also in the word of teaching. See how he desires him to be great and admirable even in this.

That is, be attentive to yourself and teach others.

He who nourishes himself with the words of teaching first benefits himself, because in teaching others, he also moves himself to compunction.

That is, obviously, clearly, and not covertly, as the law and the prophets.

Since the apostle said above that some had suffered shipwreck in the faith, do not be surprised, he says, that now some hold to Jewish errors. A time will come when those who consider themselves Christians will do works even worse. The apostle says this not about the Jews, for they existed in ancient times, as also in that time, but about the Marcionites, Encratites, Manichaeans, and all their assemblies of that sort.

For, attending to these things, they condemned certain foods and marriage. However, the apostle has in mind here all other heresies as well, for they are all from the seduction of lying spirits and the teaching of demons. Yet he does not clearly mention all heresies here, so as not to sow them in the souls of people: he points to the heresy that had already begun, namely concerning foods and marriage.

That is, what they speak falsely about, they do not speak falsely out of ignorance, but knowing that it is false, they hypocritically teach it as though it were true.

Some matters require teaching, while others require commanding. Thus, that one must not steal — this should not be taught gently, but commanded, that is, forbidden with particular force. But if he speaks of the distribution of possessions, or of virginity, or of how one ought to believe, then this must be taught. Therefore the apostle uses both expressions: "preach... and teach." And in another sense, when we do something knowing that it is evil, we need commanding; when we do so without knowing it, we need teaching.

Here the apostle speaks of the gift of teaching, which the chosen bishop received. "By prophecy," that is, by the command of the Holy Spirit, as was said above.

That is, of bishops. For it was not priests who ordained a bishop. See what amazing power the laying on of priestly hands has.

That is, this saying is true and worthy of being accepted by all as undoubted. And what is this saying? That godliness is profitable both here and there. Everywhere in the epistle the apostle points this out, having no need to confirm it, but simply proclaiming it, for the word was addressed to Timothy.

If the apostle commands Timothy to occupy himself with the reading of Holy Scripture, should we not do the same? Paul himself undoubtedly occupied himself with reading until the end of his life, urging this upon others as well. The apostle consoles Timothy by saying "till I come," for this gave him hope that he would soon see his teacher, since, being orphaned, he naturally sought Paul with his heart. And here is yet another reason why he said "till I come" — since holy Timothy, being young, naturally did not know many things and needed his teacher's presence in order to learn them from him, the apostle Paul says to him: until I come, read the Scriptures, and there you will find the necessary precepts. And when I come, I will pass on to you the rest as well.

With exhortation: That is, by persuasion and encouragement of those who feel within themselves a decline of moral energy.

With teaching: Addressed to all and concerning every matter.

For "all things," it says, "were very good" (Gen. 1:31). By saying "creature of God," the apostle designated everything that can be used for food, and in this way already overthrew the error of those who introduce uncreated matter and say that everything came from it.

If something is sanctified, does this not mean that it is unclean? No, the apostle makes a qualification. First he essentially says that nothing is unclean, then with a qualification: suppose, he says, that there is something unclean, but you have a remedy: make the sign of the cross over it, give thanks, render glory to God — and the uncleanness disappears. For thanksgiving purifies all things; but the ungrateful person is himself unclean and defiled. Can we then in this way also purify food offered to idols? Yes, if we do not know that it is food offered to idols. But if we know and partake of it, then we are unclean, because we have violated the law commanding us not to partake in the table of demons. Consequently, it is your free will that is defiled by disobedience, while food by its nature is never unclean.

He shows what the godliness is in which the apostles themselves were exercised, and confirms how he has hope for the future life, saying: "for this reason," instead of: therefore "we both labor and suffer reproach." For why would we exhaust ourselves if we did not expect the future blessings that the living God will give us after death? Here the soldiers of an earthly king, having endured many labors and dangers, often do not receive their due reward when the king happens to die; but our King is always alive, and will always repay.

That is, He wants to save all—both here and there. But He applies greater care here for the faithful. If He were not their Savior, how would they have stood against all attacks? By this the apostle urges Timothy to endure dangers. Do not lose heart, he says, having such a God, and do not ask for help from others, but hope in Him: God is living and He is the Savior.

That is, remind your own people of what I said, but do not enter into disputes with the corrupted; for it is impossible to benefit them, except perhaps in the case when a scandal might arise, as though out of our weakness we are declining to contend with them. The apostle calls the Jewish observances "fables," either because they are fabricated, or because they are untimely. For imagine if a man of about thirty years clung to the breast — how worthy of ridicule he would be for his untimeliness! He calls them "old wives' tales" because they are already outdated. Profane and unclean — because they constitute an obstacle to faith. For to subject to fear a soul that has risen above all this is characteristic of unclean rules.

Train yourself in pure faith and righteous living, for in this consists godliness. Therefore, one must exercise and labor constantly; for he who trains in bodily gymnastics strives in this to the point of sweat even without any competition.

"These things" – what exactly? That there is a "great... mystery" (1 Tim. 3:16), that to abstain in such a way from marriage and foods is a matter of demons, and the rest of what the apostle said above. And what does "putting in remembrance" mean? The same as "advising." He did not say: commanding, for here he nowhere displays his authority.

He said: propose these things to others. Now he says: but you yourself also be "nourished" by the same truths, turning them over in your mind and, as it were, digesting them. For suggesting unceasing attention to them, he said: "nourished." Just as we partake of food every day, so too must we always be nourished by the words of faith.

Then when he says, bodily exercise is profitable to little, he chooses it over abstinence:

first, he shows how it is profitable;

second, how godliness is profitable, at but godliness.

He says, therefore, that the bodily exercise of fasting and so on are not good of their very nature, but penal. Furthermore, if man had not sinned, they would be useless; yet they are good medicine. For just as rhubarb is good for relieving cholera, so bodily exercise is good for repressing concupiscence. Therefore, it is useful in that respect: I chastise my body and bring it into subjection (1 Cor 9:27); mortify your members which are upon the earth (Col 3:5). And so, if man were in that state in which he could not sin, he would not need fastings and the like. Hence Chrysostom, commenting on Matthew: Jesus came into the quarters of Caesarea Philippi, says: John, a mere man, needed the medicine of fasting; but Christ was pure God and not merely man; therefore, he did not need such a thing (Matt 16:30). Consequently, it is useful to little, namely, for diseases of carnal sin, not of spiritual; for sometimes a man falls into anger, vain glory, and so on because of fasting.

Then when he says, but godliness is profitable to all things, he chooses it over abstinence; where godliness is taken in both senses of referring to divine worship and mercy. It is profitable to all things, because it removes all sins: water quenches a flaming fire; and alms resists sin (Sir 3:33); also it promotes what is good: the alms of a man is as a signet with him (Sir 17:18). Again, it merits God's special mercy: blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy (Matt 5:7). Therefore, in order to stress this the Lord praises works of mercy in a special way (Matt 25).

Then the Apostle proves his statement when he adds, having promise of the life that now is and of that which is to come. For in the precepts of the decalogue there is but one which refers to godliness, namely, to honor your father and your mother; but under it are contained all the precepts that are concerned with bestowing benefits upon one's neighbor. Furthermore, this is the only precept, among those that are concerned with our neighbor, having promise attached to it, namely, that you may be long-lived upon the land which the Lord, your God, will give you (Exod 20:12). And the Apostle here takes long-lived as referring to the present life and the future life: length of days is in her right hand (Prov 3:16).

But here a question arises: for we sometimes observe a man who pursues godliness but does not live long.

I answer, according to the Philosopher, that temporal goods are good only to the extent that they are useful for felicity. Hence, if a man had so many temporal goods that they hindered him from the pursuit of goodness and felicity, this would not turn out for his good, but for evil, as it is stated in the Ethics X. And length of days is one of the temporal goods, inasmuch as it is an aid to virtue. But sometimes it is an occasion for sinning; as a result God sometimes keeps them from a man, not because he is reneging on his promise, but because he wishes to give something better: he was taken away lest wickedness should alter his understanding (Wis 4:11).

Then there is another question: the Apostle seems to prefer godliness over bodily exercise, because it holds a promise of the life that now is, and of that which is to come. But does not bodily exercise hold a promise? Otherwise, one who fasts would not merit eternal life.

The answer is that when two virtues are such that one contains the other, then the per se characteristics of the higher virtue belong accidentally to the lower. Now the virtue whose per se characteristic is to merit eternal life is charity, whose proper and immediate effect is godliness. Therefore, it belongs to the very nature of godliness to merit eternal life; but not so abstinence, unless it is ordained to charity and godliness. For if one who fasts does not relate it to love of God, he does not merit eternal life.

The third question is this: Ambrose in a Gloss on this passage says that the whole sum of Christian discipline lies in mercy and godliness, which, when someone follows them, if he experiences perils to his flesh, he will doubtlessly be attacked, but will not perish.

The first question is concerned with the first part of this statement, because mercy and godliness are immediately ordained to charity, in which lies the sum of the Christian religion.

The answer, as given by Augustine in The City of God, is that it has been the opinion of some that those who perform acts of godliness will not perish in the end, no matter how many carnal sins they commit. And to this is an authority, where Christ reproaches the damned for not performing works of mercy (Matt 25:41). Consequently, eternal damnation will fall only on the unmerciful.

But Augustine says the contrary, because the Apostle states: they who do such things shall not obtain the kingdom of God (Gal 5:21). For no matter how much a person is exercised in the works of mercy, if he dies in mortal sin, he will not enter the kingdom.

The answer to the opposite opinion is that a person is not merciful, if he is not merciful to himself, as it is said: have pity on your own soul, pleasing God (Sir 30:24); and this happens if a man is united to God in love; otherwise he cannot be merciful.

To the citation from Matthew, Augustine answers that not everyone who sins is cast into hell at once, because there still remains some room for repentance; but he will be cast in who finally dies in sin; and penance pertains to mercy.

But what does Ambrose mean by experiencing perils in the flesh? I answer that he is speaking of mortal peril.

And he says, he will not perish, although this is not ex condigno but ex congruo, inasmuch as the soul is disposed toward the good. That is why the Lord restored man after his fall. And this is especially seen in godliness, because a man by helping others induces them to pray for him; and the Lord sometimes grants pardon to sinners because of the prayers of the saints, inasmuch as they obtain from him a pardon for sin and the gift of grace. For a man can merit ex congruo the first grace for another man; otherwise the Church's prayers for sinners would be of no avail.

Then he identifies the false doctrine and touches on the Manichean heresy, which condemns marriage in opposition to Matthew: what God has joined together, let no man put asunder (Matt 19:6); a woman sins not, if she marry (1 Cor 7:36). Likewise, the Manicheans forbid the use of foods, i.e., they command abstinence from foods.

Now abstaining from foods can be lawful, when it is for the purpose of taming the flesh, as Timothy abstained from wine; or to avoid scandal, as the Apostle says in 1 Corinthians: if meat scandalize my brother, I will never eat flesh, lest I should scandalize my brother (1 Cor 8:13). And it can be unlawful: first of all, when it involves obeying false laws, as though the observances of the old law were still in vogue contrary to the Apostle in Galatians (Gal 2:15); second, when it accords with the heresy of the Manicheans, not because it is commanded by the law (which they reject), but because they say that in flesh, eggs, wine, and so on, i.e., in certain particles of these foods the divine nature is an ingredient. But the Apostle does not seem to be referring here to the foods interdicted the by the old law, but to those forbidden by the Manicheans, because he says: in the last times.

And he calls those Manicheans devils, because they give more honor to the Devil than other heresies do, inasmuch as they regard him as a principle equal to the good God, since they regard him as the principle of visible things.

But the Apostle disproves this error in two ways:

first, by reason of God's intention in creating food;

and second, from the condition of the creature, at every creature.

He says, therefore, that they command abstinence even against God's intention, who created these things to be received with thanksgiving: and every thing that moves and lives shall be meat for you: even as the green herbs have I delivered them all to you (Gen 9:3).

But you say: do plants exist for animals and animals for men? The answer is yes; even according to the Philosopher in the Politics I, which states that the imperfect is for the sake of the more perfect. Hence, just as there are degrees of perfection in the production of things: first, the production of plants; then of animals, and finally of men; so also in the use of things:

And thus, they are to be received, but with thanksgiving: in all things give thanks (2 Thess 5:18), because all have been granted to you by God: the poor shall eat and be filled (Ps 21:27).

And he says, with thanksgiving by the faithful, because they who receive with thanksgiving are faithful. For no one can thank God for that which is unlawful. For he is a fool who thanks God for fornication, because God is not the source of evil. Therefore, he thanks God who recognizes that the use of foods is lawful. And this is made known by faith alone; that is why he says, by the faithful.

Then when he says, and by those who have known the truth, for every creature of God is good, he disproves this error by arguing from the condition of the creature:

first, he describes the condition of the creature, namely, that every creature is good in itself;

second, the use of the creature.

Then when he says, let no man, he shows how he becomes fit for the foregoing:

first, for commanding;

second, for teaching, at till I come.

In regard to the first he does two things:

first, he shows him how to forestall contempt;

second, he mentions what should be used to forestall it, at be an example.

For a command is respected when there is authority in the one commanding; consequently, when such authority is scorned, the command is frustrated. This happens especially in regard to youths, who are not considered prudent. Hence, according to the Philosopher, no one chooses a youth as a leader. Consequently, he says, let no man despise your youth. As if to say: although you are young in years, your character represents one much older: and when he was younger than any of the tribe of Nephtali, yet he did no childish thing in his work (Tob 1:4).

Then he shows how to forestall contempt, when he says, be an example of the faithful, i.e., show yourself to be such that you may be an example of what you teach by word.

And it should be noted that there are many differences in those matters in which a prelate serves as an example. For some are ordained to one's neighbor; some to God; and some to oneself. As to one's neighbor he says, be an example of the faithful, namely, that what you command you fulfill in your actions: being made a pattern of the flock from the heart (1 Pet 5:3). And this in your speech; hence he says, in word, namely, well thought out, well arranged and cautious: let your speech be always in grace, seasoned with salt (Col 4:6); if any man speak, let him speak as the words of God (1 Pet 4:11). And in your behavior, i.e., your external conduct, so that just as you excel in place and dignity, so also in good behavior: having your conversation good among the gentiles (1 Pet 2:12); that they may see your good works and glorify your Father who is in heaven (Matt 5:16).

To God is ordained charity, which perfects one's love of God: if I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal (1 Cor 13:1); but above all these things have charity (Col 3:14). Also in faith, which enlightens the understanding: without faith it is impossible to please God (Heb 11:6). And this is peculiarly suited to prelates who are the guardians of the faith. Hence the Lord prays for Peter's faith: but I have prayed for you, that your faith fail not (Luke 22:32).

As to himself, chastity, which puts order in one's mind and life, because it is unbecoming for a servant's life to disagree with that of his lord: as the judge of the people is himself, so are his ministers (Sir 10:2). But Christ loved chastity so much that he chose to be born of a virgin and preserved it in her; hence he says, in chastity.

Then when he says, meditate upon these things, he shows how he should fulfill what has been commanded, namely, that he continually meditate upon the things which pertain to his office: they watch as being to render an account of your souls (Heb 13:17). Meditate, therefore, upon these things, i.e., dwell frequently on the duties which pertain to the care of your flock; and be wholly in these things, i.e., let all your energy be directed to this. And why? That your profiting may be manifest to all: no man lights a candle and puts it in a hidden place, nor under a bushel; but upon a candlestick (Luke 11:33); let your modesty be known to all men (Phil 4:5).

These things he should do because of the reward he expects. Hence he adds, take heed to yourself and to doctrine. For some attend to doctrine so much that they neglect themselves; but the Apostle tells him to attend to himself first, and then to doctrine: have pity on your own soul (Sir 30:24). Hence Jesus began to do and to teach. Be earnest in them, i.e., do them insistently: be instant in season, out of season (2 Tim 4:2). The fruit will be abundant, for in doing this you shall save both yourself and those who hear you. And this is great: he who causes a sinner to be converted from the error of his way shall save his soul from death and shall cover a multitude of sins (Jas 5:20); they that instruct many to justice, as stars for all eternity (Dan 12:3). Hence teachers will receive a golden crown.

Above, he instructed Timothy on matters pertaining to the attitude of the Church in spiritual things; second, in regard to the teachings of faith, the worship of God and the qualities required of its ministers. Here he instructs him on the attitude of the Church in regard to external things:

first, in regard to food;

second, in regard to riches and the different states of men, at whoever are servants under the yoke.

In regard to food he does two things: first, in regard to the use of foods;

second, its distribution, in chapter five, at honor widows (1 Tim 5:1).

In regard to the first he does two things: first, he rejects superstitious abstinence;

second, he prefers godliness to lawful abstinence, at exercise yourself unto godliness.

In regard to the first he does two things: first, he states the false doctrine regarding unlawful abstinence;

second, he instructs him to propose these things to the brethren, at proposing these things.

In regard to the first he does two things: first, he exposes the error;

second, he excludes it, at which God has created.

In regard to the first he does two things: first, he foretells a future error on the part of the deceived;

second, on the part of the deceivers, at speaking lies in hypocrisy.

In regard to the first he does three things: first, he discloses the author of the announcement;

second, defection from the faith, at that in the last times;

third, the cause of the defection, at giving heed.

He says, therefore: great is the mystery of godliness, which was manifested in the flesh, was justified in the Spirit (1 Tim 3:16). But in regard to this mystery the Holy Spirit foretells something of the future, for it pertains to him to reveal mysteries: the things that are to come he shall show you (John 16:13). The Spirit, therefore, foretells the secrets that lie in the Father's heart. But formerly he spoke in figures: if there be among you a prophet of the Lord, I will appear to him in a vision or I will speak to him in a dream (Num 12:6); I have multiplied visions and I have used similitudes by the ministry of the prophets (Hos 12:10). But in the New Testament the Spirit manifestly says: he will show you plainly of the Father (John 16:25).

And he foretells a coming defection from the faith: hence he says, in the last times some shall depart from the faith. The last times refers to the final era, because we are the ones upon whom the final ages have descended. Yet in this world the later it is, the closer we are to the last day. And just as in the early Church, on account of its nearness to Christ and the recently instituted sacraments, faith was very fervent, so in the last days as compared to the days of the apostles, some shall depart from the faith, because they are carnal, and error will abound: gather yourselves together that I may tell you the things that shall befall you in the last days (Gen 49:1).

The causes of the defection is twofold: one on the part of the Devil, who seduces: but I fear lest as the serpent seduced Eve by his subtlety, so your minds should be corrupted (2 Cor 11:3). Therefore, he says, giving heed to spirits of error, namely, to demons whose work is to lead men into error: he is a liar and the father thereof (John 8:44); I will go forth and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets (3 Kgs 22:22). And he says, to spirits, because the head Devil has many underlings.

But how will they give heed? Will they see him? No, but they will speak in them. Therefore, he mentions the second cause, namely, false doctrines. According to a Gloss he calls false teachers devils; and deservedly. For just as good men are sometimes called angels, so evil men because of the degree of their wickedness are called demons: have not I chosen you twelve: and one of you is the Devil (John 6:71).

He says, therefore, every creature of God is good, i.e., in its nature: God saw all the things that he had made, and they were very good (Gen 1:31). For from a good source good alone proceeds.

But because many things are good in themselves, but their use is not good, he proves that every creature is good not only in itself, but also in its use:

first, he states his intent;

second, he proves it, at for it is sanctified.

He says, therefore: nothing is to be rejected, i.e., as though forbidden by divine law; although it might be rejected for some other reason. For example, to take poison is not a sin, but it must be avoided, because it is deadly. The same is true of other foods: they are not to be rejected as things, but only as stimuli to wantonness. Therefore, they are to be rejected only in view of reason's discretion and charity's demands: not that which goes into the mouth defiles a man (Matt 15:11).

But why were certain foods forbidden under the old law? Augustine states the reason in the book Against Faustus, when he says that, in that state not only words, but deeds also, prefigured Christ. Hence foods, vesture and sacrifice were figures of a coming state. Therefore, they were not forbidden in themselves, but because they were figures of unclean things. Thus a pig was a symbol of an impure life; consequently, its flesh was prohibited, because it was a sign that in Christ's law all uncleanness would be forbidden. This is Augustine's example. This name, 'tasteless,' can be considered insofar as it is a word composed of letters, and in this sense it is good; or it can be considered as a sign of such and such a thing, and then it is evil and forbidden. The use of every creature, therefore, is good in itself.

Above, the Apostle exhorted Timothy to godliness; here he gives him the formula for teaching godliness:

first, he commands him to teach godliness;

second, how he is fit to teach, at let no man;

third, how he must teach different persons in different ways, at do not rebuke an ancient man.

Now the doctrine of godliness is composed of two things: what is to be done and what is to be believed. The things to be done are not merely to be proposed, but commanded by those in authority; hence he says, command: rebuke with all authority (Titus 2:15). As to the things to be believed he says, and teach these things: teach all nations (Matt 28:19); behold, you have taught many (Job 4:3).

Then when he says, do not neglect, he gives the reason for this advice:

first, the cause from the gift received;

second, the cause from the reward expected, at take heed to yourself.

In regard to the first he does two things: first, he gives the reason;

second, he shows how that which is contained in the reason can be fulfilled, at meditate upon these things.

He says, therefore: do not neglect the grace that is in you. As if to say: yes, take heed, because one who receives grace should not be negligent in using it; rather, it should bear fruit. The servant who hid his master's money in the earth is punished for negligence (Matt 25:24). Therefore, do not neglect the grace that is in you. By this we are to understand the episcopal dignity or the gift of knowledge or prophecy or miracles; none of which should be neglected: do not receive the grace of God in vain (2 Cor 6:1).

I say, the grace which was given to you by prophecy, i.e., by divine inspiration. For in the early Church where elections were conducted honestly and for the honor of God, no one was chosen for the bishop's office except by divine choice, as Ambrose and Nicholas were chosen. And he calls this inspiration prophecy. Hence a Gloss says: they were chosen by the saints, because the saints chose only those they know had been chosen by God. And the Apostle foresaw that this would be beneficial to the Church: when prophecy should fail, i.e., this manner of choosing, the people shall be scattered abroad (Prov 29:18).

But how was this grace received? With the imposition of the hand of the priest, where another version has of the hands of the priesthood. But, as has been stated, the names priest and bishop were interchangeable; because priests and bishops were established by the imposition of hands: take Josue and put your hand upon him (Num 27:18). The Lord also put his hands upon children (Matt 19:15); and the apostles upon the seven deacons (Acts 6:6). That is why hands are imposed upon those who are to be ordained bishops.

But a question arises here: since a bishop ought to be ordained by three, why does he say here, of the priest, in the singular?

I answer that he says this because even more than one are present, one is the chief and the others assistants. Yet it can be said that this constitution was not in vogue then, either because there were few bishops or because all of them could not be assembled.

Another version has of the priesthood, i.e., of those who imposed hands not as men but as priests. And this imposition signifies the conferring of grace: not that the ministers give grace, but that they signify the grace given by Christ. Hence it is given by those who are Christ's ministers; that is why he says, of the priesthood, or of the priest: because there is one imposition of hands performed by deacons and another by priests.

Then when he says, a faithful saying, he shows that a future life is promised us: first, he shows this from the labor of the saints; second, from their hope, at because we hope; third, from God's benignity, at who is the Savior.

He says, therefore: the saying that godliness has a promise is faithful.

Why? Because in this we labor, i.e., to reach eternal life: the farmer who labors must first partake of the fruits (2 Tim 2:6); and also to do good, even though we suffer evil; hence he says, we labor and are reviled: patience has a good work (Jas 1:4); patience works trial (Rom 5:4).

Then when he says, till I come, attend to reading, he shows how to become fit for teaching:

first, he does this;

second, he assigns the reason for the admonition, at do not neglect.

For there are two things which make a person fit to teach, namely, reading, in which he acquires knowledge, and actual teaching, in which he is made ready; therefore, he says, till I come, attend to reading of holy books: having for our comfort the holy books that are in our hands (1 Macc 12:9); search the Scriptures (John 5:39). And this is signified in Exodus where it is stated that in the ark of the Lord there must always be poles in the rings that are on the sides of the ark, so that it may always be ready for carrying (Exod 25:14).

But for actual teaching there is needed exhortation in regard to what is to be done, and doctrine in regard to what is to be known; therefore, he adds, to exhortation and to doctrine: I will give you pastors according to my own heart, and they shall feed you with knowledge and doctrine (Jer 3:15).

And we endure because of the hope of life: because we hope in the living God, who is the Savior of the present and of the future life;

and because of God's work which is to save: for I am your Savior (Isa 43:2). This is God become incarnate and called Jesus: for he shall save his people from their sins (Matt 1:21); Jesus is the same as Savior, because he saves with a bodily salvation that extends to all; hence he says, of all men, and with a spiritual salvation that extends only to the good; hence he says, especially of the faithful.

On the part of those deceived, the cause is also twofold: one is their falsity; the other is the perversity of their conscience.

In regard to the first he says, of devils, i.e., of men possessed by a Devil; of devils I say, speaking lies: how long shall this be in the heart of the prophets that prophecy lies, and that prophesy the delusions of their own heart (Jer 23:36).

And note that no one could deceive another with a simple lie, unless it was covered with the appearance of truth. And so, they never could succeed in deceiving unless they pretended to have a good intention, or put a cloak over their pretense or false authority: let no man deceive you with vain words (Eph 5:6); having an appearance indeed of godliness, but denying the power thereof. Now these avoid (2 Tim 3:5).

And of devils, I say, having their conscience seared. Flesh is said to be seared, when it is corrupted by fire and is in such a condition that rot flows from it continuously. Thus, by means of the fire of a perverse will, of anger, of hatred, of concupiscence, the conscience is ulcerated and the false doctrine of devils continually issues from it: both their mind and their conscience are defiled (Titus 1:15).

Then when he says, but avoid foolish and old wives' fables, he shows what is to be avoided, namely, foolish and empty fables.

For according to the Philosopher a fable is composed of extraordinary events and in the beginning were invented (as he says in the Politics) to induce men to acquire virtue and avoid vices. Now, uneducated persons are more readily induced to such things by representations than by reasons. Hence, in an unusual event well presented there is pleasure to be found, because reason is pleased when it compares. And just as representation in deeds is pleasurable, so also in words: and this is what a fable is, namely, a story representing something, and by representing, moving a person to do something. For the ancients had fables which counseled certain truths, and they had these truths in fables. Therefore, there are two elements in a fable: first, it contains something true which represents something useful; and it must fit that truth. Therefore, if a fable is proposed which does not contain a truth, it is said to be empty; whereas if it is not an apt vehicle for a certain truth, it is said to be foolish or inept, as the fables found in the Talmud.

Then when he says, exercise yourself unto godliness, having rejected superstitious abstinence, he compares virtuous abstinence with the other virtues.

And it should be noted that Timothy was a very abstemious person; hence the Apostle tells him below (2 Cor 5:23) to use a little wine. By this advice he might have been implying that he should try to be more merciful, because those who are hard on themselves are likely to be hard on others. Consequently, he advises him to prefer godliness to abstinence:

first, he exhorts him to godliness;

second, he chooses it over abstinence, at for bodily exercise;

third, he supports something already said, at having promise;

fourth, he gives the formula for teaching godliness, at command and teach these things.

He says, therefore: exercise yourself unto godliness, which is the virtue by which we pay the debt of good will to our parents and native land, just as religion is the virtue by which we render worship to God. For godliness suggests affection directed to one's principle. But the principle of generation is one's country and one's parents. Therefore, it is required that a man have good will toward these principles. But the principle and father of all things is God: if I be a father, where is my honor? (Mal 1:6). This is why the name godliness is applied to the worship of God, as Augustine says, in The City of God. Hence eusebia is another name for godliness: behold, godliness is wisdom (Job 28:28) according to another version, where ours has: behold, the fear of the Lord is wisdom. And the acknowledging of the truth, which is according to godliness (Titus 1:1). But as to earthly godliness, its characteristic is to make a man have good will toward his compatriots; as to Christian godliness, it requires that a man have good will toward all men, because all of us belong to the same country. In this sense, godliness is taken for mercy.

Therefore, when he says, exercise yourself unto godliness, it can be taken as referring to the worship of God and to performing acts of mercy. And he says, exercise, and not perform, because exercise suggests readiness in the sense that one who is exercised performs with less difficulty and in a more delightful and consistent manner: diligently till your ground (Prov 24:27).

The reason for this is that if it were evil it would only be so, because the Devil had acquired power over it after man's sin: for as a result of man's sin the Devil obtained power over man and over the things that man owns. But Christ took away this power: and this is called sanctification. Consequently, everything we bless is thereby exorcised, because the blessing includes a prayer expelling the Devil. That is why the Apostle says, it is sanctified by the Word of God, i.e., by Christ, who sanctifies all things, and by the prayer of the faithful: for the continual prayer of a just man avails much (Jas 5:16).

Above, he rejected superstitious abstinence from goods; here he commands Timothy to propose this teaching to the brethren:

first, he shows what he should propose;

second, what he should avoid, at but avoid foolish and old wives' fables.

In regard to the first he proposes two reasons why he should propose the foregoing:

first, by reason of the office entrusted to him;

second, by reason of his education.

He says, therefore: proposing these things which I have mentioned above, namely, that every creature is good, and that nothing is to be rejected that is received with thanksgiving (1 Tim 4:4), to the brethren, you shall be a good minister of Christ Jesus. For Timothy was appointed to the office of Christ's minister; because everyone in the office of preaching and ruling is established as a minister of Christ: let a man so account of us as of the ministers of Christ, and the dispensers of the mysteries of God (1 Cor 4:1). Now a good minister is one who pursues his master's aim; but Christ taught in Matthew: not that which goes into the mouth defiles a man (Matt 15:11). Therefore, Timothy's office requires that he teach this.

Furthermore, his education requires this: a young man according to his way; even when he is old, he will not depart from it (Prov 22:6). Therefore, it is unbecoming for anyone nourished by true doctrine to depart from it. Hence to depart from the doctrine with which the Church instructs her children is not the mark of a good minister of Christ; that is why he says, nourished in the words of faith and of the good doctrine. For God's word is the spiritual nourishment by which the soul is sustained, as the body is by food: not in bread alone does man live, but in every word that proceeds from the mouth of God (Matt 4:4).

This word of faith instructs one, first of all, in regard to what is to be believed; and so he says, nourished in the words of faith; second, in regard to what one should do; therefore, he continues, and of the good doctrine. Or, the words of faith, which even the simple have; and of the good doctrine, which spiritual teachers preach.

Meanwhile, it remains true that I shall eat a great deal of turkey this Christmas; and it is not in the least true (as the vegetarians say) that I shall do it because I do not realise what I am doing, or because I do what I know is wrong, or that I do it with shame or doubt or a fundamental unrest of conscience. In one sense I know quite well what I am doing; in another sense I know quite well that I know not what I do.

I heard the Diabolist say, "I tell you I have done everything else. If I do that I shan't know the difference between right and wrong." I rushed out without daring to pause; and as I passed the fire I did not know whether it was hell or the furious love of God.

He wore a high shiny hat and a long frock coat, but he wore them as such solemn things were meant to be worn; he wore the silk hat as if it were a mitre, and the frock coat as if it were the ephod of a high priest. He not only hung his hat up on the peg, but he seemed (such was his stateliness) almost to ask permission of the hat for doing so, and to apologise to the peg for making use of it. When he had sat down on a wooden chair with the air of one considering its feelings and given a sort of slight stoop or bow to the wooden table itself, as if it were an altar, I could not help some comment springing to my lips.

That the early Church was itself full of an ecstatic enthusiasm for renunciation and virginity makes this distinction much more striking and not less so. It makes all the more important the place where the dogma drew the line. A man might crawl about on all fours like a beast because he was an ascetic. He might stand night and day on the top of a pillar and be adored for being an ascetic. But he could not say that the world was a mistake or the marriage state a sin without being a heretic. What was it that thus deliberately disengaged itself from eastern asceticism by sharp definition and fierce refusal, if it was not something with an individuality of its own; and one that was quite different? If the Catholics are to be confused with the Gnostics, we can only say it was not their fault if they are. And it is rather hard that the Catholics should be blamed by the same critics for persecuting the heretics and also for sympathising with the heresy.

Temperance referred not specially to drink, but to all pleasures; and it meant not abstaining, but going the right length and no further. It is a mistake to think that Christians ought all to be teetotallers; Mohammedanism, not Christianity, is the teetotal religion. Of course it may be the duty of a particular Christian, or of any Christian, at a particular time, to abstain from strong drink, either because he is the sort of man who cannot drink at all without drinking too much, or because he is with people who are inclined to drunkenness and must not encourage them by drinking himself. But the whole point is that he is abstaining, for a good reason, from something which he does not condemn and which he likes to see other people enjoying. One of the marks of a certain type of bad man is that he cannot give up a thing himself without wanting every one else to give it up. That is not the Christian way. An individual Christian may see fit to give up all sorts of things for special reasons — marriage, or meat, or beer, or the cinema; but the moment he starts saying the things are bad in themselves, or looking down his nose at other people who do use them, he has taken the wrong turning.